“…For example, although AgNPs show antifungal activity against Bipolaris sorokiniana ( Mishra et al., 2014 ), wood-rotting pathogens (e.g., Gloeophyllum abietinum ; Narayanan and Park, 2014 ), and phytophthora pathogens (e.g., Phytophthora parasitica ; Ali et al., 2015 ), etc., foliar application of AgNPs induces oxidative stress in cucumber leaves ( Zhang et al., 2018a ). Cerium oxide NPs with a negative charge, about 10-nm size, and low Ce 3+ /Ce 4+ ratio improved plant tolerance to high light, heat, cold, and salinity in different plant species, including cotton, rice, rapeseed, cucumber, and Arabidopsis ( Wu et al., 2017b , 2018 ; An et al., 2020 ; Khan et al., 2021 , 2022 ; Liu et al., 2021 ; Zhou et al., 2021 ; Li et al., 2022b ; Chen et al., 2022 ). By contrast, cerium oxide NPs with a 99-nm size and 47-mV charge resulted in toxicity to asparagus lettuce plants, causing reduced root length ( Cui et al., 2014 ).…”