“…This extinction process, by which the fear response (often measured as cessation of all body movements or freezing) is reduced over time, has been linked by many studies to signalling of the discrepancy between predicted and actual sensory information (e.g., the presence or absence of an unexpected or expected footshock, termed PE; McNally et al, 2011). Indeed, PE signalling has been observed in different regions of the brain, such as the ventral striatum (VS; Thiele et al, 2021), prefrontal cortex (Casado-Roman et al, 2020), periaqueductal grey (Lawrenson et al, 2022), ventral tegmental area (Salinas-Hernandez et al, 2018;Cai et al, 2020) and cerebellum (Ernst et al, 2019). From electrophysiological or calcium imaging studies, putative PE signals recorded in, for example, VTA and PAG have been indicated by phasic increases in neuronal activation around the timing of the unexpected omission of an aversive stimuli (e.g., an electrical foot shock; see Salinas-Hernandez et al, 2018;Cai et al, 2020;Lawrenson et al, 2022 for examples of this).…”