Characteristics of incarcerated fathers and mothers: Implications for preventive interventions targeting children and families

Abstract

The number of children of incarcerated parents in the U.S. has grown dramatically in recent years. These children appear to be at risk for various problems, and a number of family-focused preventive efforts have been attempted. The current study examines differences between incarcerated mothers, incarcerated fathers, and their families on factors that might be important to consider when creating the content and process of preventive intervention programs. Participants were 359 inmates (54% women; 41% minority) who were parents of children between the ages of 3 and 11 years and who parented their children prior to imprisonment. Mothers and fathers were similar on a number of dimensions including age, education-level, number and age of children, and family criminal history, but differences were observed on key variables relevant to outcomes for children and families, including employment history and income, substance use, mental health, trauma experiences and criminal history. Implications for prevention programs are discussed.

Associations Among Mother–Child Contact, Parenting Stress, and Mother and Child Adjustment Related to Incarceration

“…These challenges are often rooted in a lifetime of disadvantage and related stress exposure, including growing up in poverty and in a single-parent household, dropping out of school, experiencing physical or sexual abuse, having at least one immediate family member who was incarcerated, having a parent who abused alcohol or drugs, and becoming a parent at an early age relative to other women (Greenfi eld & Snell, 2000 ). As adults, substance use dependence, posttraumatic stress, and depression-all conditions with a higher lifetime prevalence among incarcerated than non-incarcerated women (Travis & Waul, 2003 )-can further challenge effective parenting and increase risk for their children's development of problem behaviors particularly when compounded by present-day poverty, residential instability, and limited vocational training and work opportunities (Kjellstrand, Cearley, Eddy, Foney, & Martinez, 2012 ;Kjellstrand & Eddy, 2011a, 2011b. Given this potential pile-up of adversity, incarceration can be construed as a continuation or exacerbation of stressful life experiences for mothers and for their children and families.…”

Parenting While Incarcerated: Tailoring the Strengthening Families Program for use with jailed mothers

“…This suggests the importance of directly attending to jailed mothers' needs. Incarcerated mothers (compared to fathers) tend to have higher rates of drug use, unemployment and poverty (Kjellstrand et al, 2012; Mumola, 2000); more mental illness and higher distress (Dallaire, 2007; Glaze & Maruschak, 2008; Kjellstrand et al, 2012); and worse family histories in terms of child abuse, trauma, and simply poor models of parenting (Glaze & Maruschak, 2008; Katz, 1998). Mothers who end up in the correctional system are thus often coming from very high-stress, disorganized, and dangerous backgrounds.…”

“…They are (typically) separated from their children, so it can be difficult to maintain an active parenting role (Boudin, 1998; Kazura, 2001). Parents, particularly mothers, in the correctional system have also often experienced poor parenting role models and experience multiple associated challenges (e.g., abuse histories, dysfunctional family relationships; Kjellstrand, Cearley, Eddy, Foney, & Martinez, 2012) that make it difficult to break the intergenerational cycle of incarceration. Incarcerated mothers report greater distress than non-parent inmates and more anger than incarcerated fathers (Roxburgh & Fitch, 2013).…”

“…Conceptually, one must consider issues that may be uniquely salient. For example, many incarcerated mothers are experiencing drug addiction (Kjellstrand et al, 2012; Mumola, 2000), so addressing this issue is often warranted. Because mothers tend to be primary caregivers it is also vital to consider alternate care arrangements for their children and the quality of the relationship with the alternate caregivers, who may be family members (Loper, Carlson, Levitt, & Scheffel, 2009; Strozier, Armstrong, Skuza, Cecil, & McHale, 2011).…”

Project home: A pilot evaluation of an emotion-focused intervention for mothers reuniting with children after prison.

“…Issues related to the difficulties experienced to a greater degree by incarcerated mothers as they reenter society include single parenthood and problems related to preincarceration adverse life circumstances, including abuse and trauma (Glaze & Maruschak, 2008; Kjellstrand & Eddy, 2011a). The potentially important differences that exist for children when mothers versus fathers are incarcerated (Dallaire, 2007b; Dallaire & Wilson, 2010; Kjellstrand, Cearley, Eddy, Foney, & Martinez, 2012; Spjeldnes & Goodkind, 2009) may limit the generalizability of the Emotions Program to fathers.…”