Characterization of some ancient glass beads unearthed from theKizil reservoir andWanquan cemeteries inXinjiang,China

Abstract

A total of 33 ancient glass beads unearthed from the Kizil reservoir cemetery and Wanquan cemetery in Xinjiang are studied using Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy‐dispersive spectrometry (SEM–EDS) and other methods. The detailed study of the glassy matrices, the crystalline inclusions and the microstructural heterogeneities for these glass beads has revealed some valuable information to help in the understanding of their possible manufacturing technology and provenance. At least two different types of glass were present in the two cemeteries. For the first time, antimony‐based colourant/opacifier—for example, Pb2Sb2O7 or CaSb2O6—was systematically identified in some beads of plant‐ash type soda–lime glass dated to about 1000–500 bc. The limited number of potash glass beads from the Kizil reservoir cemetery, which were dated to about 500–300 bc, used tin oxide as an opacifier. The diverse resources of the soda–lime and potash glasses indicate the existence of a complex trade network between China and the West much earlier than the Western Han Dynasty.

Yellow pigments based on lead, tin, and antimony: Ancient recipes, synthesis, characterization, and hue choice in artworks

“…Generally, tin oxide has been detected in the powders obtained by following the indications of the recipe 272 of the Bolognese manuscript. The bands of SnO 2 are detected at cm −1 : 474w, 633s, and 775w . The bands of Pb 2 SnO 4 (Supporting Information Table 2) are in accordance with those found in the literature .…”

Combined spectroscopic analysis of stratified glass eye beads from China dated to the Warring States Period

“…In addition, the two overlapping modes at 329 cm −1 (E g ) and 297 cm −1 (F 2g ) could be attributed to vibrational modes related to Sb―O and Pb―O bonds . The strong A 1g mode assigned to the totally symmetric elongation of the SbO 6 octahedra was observed at 508 cm −1 , and the partial substitution of Sb 5+ by Zn 2+ was reflected by the presence of a shoulder at 455 cm −1 . Thus, through comparison of these observations with literature data, we confirmed the presence of bindheimite Pb 2 Sb 2 O 7 in LMYZ06.…”

“…We previously identified the use of antimony‐based opacifiers and colorants in plant‐ash type and natron type soda–lime silicate glass beads (1000–400 bc ), which are distributed in the north of the Changjiang River . Evidence from the Chinese glasses analyzed here support Tite's suggested chronology for the use of antimony as an opacifying agent in the Mediterranean region.…”

“…Additionally, very limited Pb was also found in the other samples. In view of the Mα peak of Pb and the Kα peak of S overlapping in pXRF, it may indicate that roasted lead or antimony sulfide was the raw material used to prepare the lead antimonate yellow or calcium antimonate.…”

Investigation of some Chinese jade artifacts (5000 BC to 771 BC) by confocal laser micro‐Raman spectroscopy and other techniques

“…The chemical compositions, including the trace elements, of these jade artifacts were determined with either an OUTSTEX 100FA‐type portable energy‐dispersive X‐ray fluorescence spectrometer (pXRF) or an external‐beam PIXE. More details of the pXRF and external‐beam PIXE measurements may be found in Gan et al ., Liu et al ., and Li et al …”