Children’s Individual Differences in Executive Function and Theory of Mind in Relation to Prejudice Toward Social Minorities

Abstract

Executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM) are key cognitive skills for socio-emotional adjustment. Executive function develops considerably between 3 and 7 years of age, and fosters the development of social cognition skills such as ToM. Studies with adults have shown a link between EF and prejudice, as well as between empathy and prejudice. Moreover, the relationship between EF, cognitive and affective ToM and prejudice has barely been studied in children. In this study, we aimed at examining the relationship between individual differences in EF, cognitive and affective ToM and prejudice toward the Romany ethnic minority. We expected a positive association between EF and ToM skills, and a negative association between EF and prejudice. We also predicted a negative association between ToM and prejudice. A total of 86 preschool (5–6 years old, N = 43) and third-grade (8–9 years old, N = 43) children participated in the study. Results showed a negative relationship between EF and prejudice, as well as between affective ToM and prejudice, after controlling for intelligence. Moreover, we found that EF significantly predicted prejudice. Exploratory correlational analyses suggested age-related differences in the EF skills underlying prejudice regulation. These findings suggest a distinctive contribution of cognitive and affective components of ToM to prejudice, and highlight the central role of EF in social behavior regulation.

Theories of Prejudice Development

“…With increasing social-cognitive development, prejudice may decrease further during adolescence or may increase again due to socialization factors. Aboud’s ideas regarding the influence of social-cognitive development on prejudicial attitudes in young children have continued to be confirmed by recent studies (e.g., Hoyo et al, 2019; Johnson & Aboud, 2017; Raabe & Beelmann, 2011). Aboud and Johnson (Aboud, 2008; Johnson & Aboud, 2012, 2017) explain these prejudicial attitudes in young children as due to children’s social-cognitive developmental levels, which results in their difficulty in recognizing and reconciling differences in people—abilities that require executive functioning (EF) and theory of mind (ToM).…”

“…Aboud and Johnson (Aboud, 2008; Johnson & Aboud, 2012, 2017) explain these prejudicial attitudes in young children as due to children’s social-cognitive developmental levels, which results in their difficulty in recognizing and reconciling differences in people—abilities that require executive functioning (EF) and theory of mind (ToM). Hoyo et al (2019) have shown that EF and ToM scores are negatively correlated with prejudicial attitudes, that is, the better children’s EF and ToM abilities, the less prejudicial attitudes they hold. Children in the 4 to 7 age range generally lack conservation skills and first- and second-order ToM skills (Jackson, 2020).…”

Neuropsychological Development of Cool and Hot Executive Functions Between 6 and 12 Years of Age: A Systematic Review

“… Number of studies included in systematic review, based on cool and hot executive functions analyzed. Working Memory ( n = 24): (Bock et al, 2015 ; Kennedy et al, 2015 ; Kharitonova et al, 2015 ; Lee Swanson et al, 2015 ; Rajan and Bell, 2015 ; Roberts et al, 2015 ; Bellaj et al, 2016 ; Lagattuta et al, 2016 , 2018 ; Pailian et al, 2016 ; Vogan et al, 2016 ; Barriga-Paulino et al, 2017 ; Barry et al, 2018 ; Goriot et al, 2018 ; Lensing and Elsner, 2018 ; Ludyga et al, 2018 ; Matte-Gagné et al, 2018 ; Nys et al, 2018 ; Simms et al, 2018 ; Wilson et al, 2018 ; Yang and Merrill, 2018 ; Hoyo et al, 2019 ; Lecce et al, 2019 ; Plebanek and Sloutsky, 2019 ). Inhibitory Control ( n = 19): (Bock et al, 2015 ; Kennedy et al, 2015 ; Rajan and Bell, 2015 ; Aïte et al, 2016 ; Bellaj et al, 2016 ; Lagattuta et al, 2016 , 2018 ; Steinbeis et al, 2016 ; Symeonidou et al, 2016 ; Hao, 2017 ; Mahy et al, 2017 ; Mous et al, 2017 ; Arbel et al, 2018 ; Barry et al, 2018 ; Goriot et al, 2018 ; Matte-Gagné et al, 2018 ; Simms et al, 2018 ; Wilson et al, 2018 ; Hoyo et al, 2019 ).…”

“…Cognitive Flexibility ( n = 10): (Bock et al, 2015 ; Chevalier and Blaye, 2016 ; Erb et al, 2017 ; Goriot et al, 2018 ; Ludyga et al, 2018 ; Matte-Gagné et al, 2018 ; Perone et al, 2018 ; Simms et al, 2018 ; Wilson et al, 2018 ; Hoyo et al, 2019 ). Theory of Mind ( n = 16): (Bock et al, 2015 ; Bulgarelli et al, 2015 ; Chaplin and Norton, 2015 ; Gómez-Garibello and Talwar, 2015 ; Kennedy et al, 2015 ; Lagattuta et al, 2016 , 2018 ; Symeonidou et al, 2016 ; Wang et al, 2016 ; Hayward and Homer, 2017 ; Mahy et al, 2017 ; Brandone and Klimek, 2018 ; Holl et al, 2018 ; Wilson et al, 2018 ; Hoyo et al, 2019 ; Lecce et al, 2019 ). Delay of Gratification ( n = 3): (Steinbeis et al, 2016 ; Hao, 2017 ; Wilson et al, 2018 ).…”

An Inclusive View of the Disability of Secondary School Students

“…Numerous studies have covered this issue, focusing on teachers themselves, considering both their personal characteristics and the teaching methodologies used [1]. In this way, the investigation into the influence of psychological and behavioural characteristics of students who share a classroom with special educational needs (SEN) students has been put on the back burner [2]. However, these characteristics are related to issues of great current relevance, such as school bullying [3,4].…”