China and the steppe: technological study of precious metalwork from Xigoupan Tomb 2 (4th–3rd c. BCE) in the Ordos region, Inner Mongolia

Abstract

Technology employed by the ancient goldsmiths is traceable through archaeometallurgy. Using non-destructive analytical methods, namely, a 3D digital microscopy and a scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM–EDS), we investigated the manufacturing techniques and chemical composition of gold and silver artefacts recovered from Tomb 2 (M2), the richest find from Xigoupan cemetery (fourth-third century BCE) in the northern part of Jungar Banner, Inner Mongolia. The present research contributes to a better understanding of the inventive nature of precious metal working industry in early China (eighth-third century BCE). First, cultural interchange was evidenced in the metalwork examined, notably as being closely linked to techniques emerging from the Eurasian steppes. In Xigoupan M2, the ornamentation of sheet works in the Scytho-Siberian animal style was seen to be clearly influenced by the central Asian steppe goldsmithing practice, while certain cast items were typical of the Chinese tradition. Second, our analysis reveals that the gold appliqués with raised animal figures that were previously thought to be repoussé work have actually been made with double-sided carving. We consider such a new technology as one of local inventions that was inspired by methods arriving from the central Asian steppes. In addition, our analysis of elemental composition reveals that the gold artefacts found in Xigoupan M2 to be made of natural gold, while the horse harness ornament is made of pure silver. These results, combined with the study of the existing data pertaining to comparable examples, attest to the shared craftsmanship in prestige metal production across the northern Chinese states, especially with regard to the pre-imperial period Qin workshop.

Art historical and archaeometric analyses of the ‘animal style’ gold and silver ornaments (fourth–third centuries bce) found in north‐west China

“…In north-west China, the use of the mould-pressing technology first appeared in the decoration of gold appliqués in the form of snow leopards (Figure 11, a) and wild boars in Dongtalede cemetery (ninth-seventh centuries BCE) in the Xinjiang Altai region (Xinjiang Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology, 2013). Both their manufacturing techniques and zoomorphic iconographies shared some common features with those mould-pressed gold plaques found in the Eurasian steppe, including Arzhan I and II in Tuva and those of Eleke saz, Taldy II, Issyk, Shilikty and Taksai located in south Siberia and Central Asia (Akishev, 1978;Armbruster, 2009;Chugunov, 2015;Chugunov et al, 2010;Liu, et al, 2021a;Liu, et al, 2021b;Onggaruly, 2018;Xinjiang Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, 2013;Yu & Ma, 2013). Meanwhile, cold-worked and annealed bronze armour and chariot pieces were occasionally found in noble tombs from the Eastern Zhou period (eighth-third centuries BCE) in the provinces of Hubei, Gansu and Shaanxi (Xiangfan Civic Archaeology Institute et al, 2005;Hubei Provincial Archaeology Institute, Suizhou Museum, 2014;Qian, 2002;Shao et al, 2015;Shaanxi Provincial Archaeology Institute et al, 2007, 2010.…”

“…There was no trace of hammering on the underside. We found that this peculiar metalworking practice could be attributed to the Qin workshop from the pre‐imperial period (Liu, et al, 2021a).…”

“…While the types of objects and their specific decorations were closely linked to the artistry of the Eurasian steppe, it should be noted that some cast objects bearing Chinese inscriptions were found in Xigoupan M2 and at the Aluchaideng site in Inner Mongolia. They were probably made in different workshops in northern Chinese states for the frontier market (Liu, et al, 2021a; Stark, 2012; Tian & Guo, 1980a, 1980b). The need for good horses was a steady impetus for trade between the Chinese and their northern neighbours, and Chinese imports of horses, cattle and other typical northern products (such as furs), as mentioned in the Zhanguo ce (Strategies of the Warring States), may have been paid for with gold and silver artefacts worked in a style attractive to the nomads (Bunker, 1997; Di Cosmo, 2004).…”

“…The current synthesis of the chemical analyses of gold artefacts found in Central Asia, China's north‐west frontiers and the Central Plains shows that it is very likely that multiple sources of natural gold were employed around the first millennium bce in Eastern Eurasia, although the exact locations of these sources remain unknown (Liu, et al, 2021a). So far, the number of compositional analyses of the silver objects found dating back to prehistoric China is far too limited to illustrate any broad pictures as gold.…”

“…Concerning their production, a range of new technologies at the time, such as repoussé, hammering, carving, granulation and filigree, were employed during the manufacturing process (Huang & Chen, 2013;Liu, et al, 2021aLiu, et al, , 2021bTan et al, 2016). Some metallurgic analyses have demonstrated that the gold products unearthed from Xigoupan Tomb 2, the Nianfangqu and Shihuigou sites in Inner Mongolia, and the Majiayuan cemetery in Gansu province had similar elemental compositions, which has led some scholars to conclude that the same metal source was used (Huang, 2019;Wang & Harutaro, 2015).…”