China's domestic and foreign influence in the global cobalt supply chain

Gulley, Andrew L.; McCullough, Erin A.; Shedd, Kim B.

doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.03.015

Cited by 108 publications

(37 citation statements)

References 15 publications

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“…First, Co is primarily mined as a by-product of nickel and copper (43% and 44% in 2015) and therefore relies on both markets for the expansion of new mines 2 . Second, the Co market has a high centralisation of mine production and reserves, located in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) as well as the increasing role of Chinese refining and mining ownership 3 . Figure 1 shows price peaks associated with events happening in the DRC and the recent market trends with prevailing DRC hegemony.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Circular economy strategies for electric vehicle batteries reduce reliance on raw materials

et al. 2020

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The wide adoption of lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles (EVs) will require increased natural resources for the automotive industry. The expected rapid increase in batteries could result in new resource challenges and supply chain risks. To strengthen the resilience and sustainability of automotive supply chains and reduce primary resource requirements, circular economy strategies are needed. Here we illustrate how these strategies can reduce primary raw material extraction i.e. cobalt supplies. Material flow analysis is applied to understand current and future flows of cobalt embedded in EVs batteries across the European Union. A reference scenario is presented and compared with four strategies: technology driven substitution and technology driven reduction of cobalt, new business models to stimulate battery reuse/recycling and policy driven strategy to increase recycling. We find that new technologies provide the most promising strategies to reduce the reliance on cobalt significantly but could result in burden shifting such as an increase in nickel demand. To avoid the latter, technological developments should therefore be combined with an efficient recycling system. We conclude that more ambitious circular economy strategies, at both government and business levels, are urgently needed to address current and future resource challenges across the supply chain successfully.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Circular economy strategies for electric vehicle batteries reduce reliance on raw materials

et al. 2020

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“…Moreover, China has dominance over the cobalt supply chain as the world largest producer, supplier, and consumer ( Figure 2 C). China has heavily invested and acquired foreign cobalt mining operations primarily in the DRC since 2000, which has reduced their net import reliance of raw cobalt from 97% to 68% ( Gulley et al., 2019 ). Considering that China itself may experience cobalt supply deficits by 2030 unless efficient recycling targets are achieved ( Zeng and Li, 2015 ), China's cobalt production will likely be prioritized for domestic battery manufacturers.…”

Section: Cobalt Supply and Demandmentioning

confidence: 99%

Breaking Free from Cobalt Reliance in Lithium-Ion Batteries

Gourley

Chen

2020

iScience

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Summary The exponential growth in demand for electric vehicles (EVs) necessitates increasing supplies of low-cost and high-performance lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Naturally, the ramp-up in LIB production raises concerns over raw material availability, where constraints can generate severe price spikes and bring the momentum and optimism of the EV market to a halt. Particularly, the reliance of cobalt in the cathode is concerning owing to its high cost, scarcity, and centralized and volatile supply chain structure. However, compositions suitable for EV applications that demonstrate high energy density and lifetime are all reliant on cobalt to some degree. In this work, we assess the necessity and feasibility of developing and commercializing cobalt-free cathode materials for LIBs. Promising cobalt-free compositions and critical areas of research are highlighted, which provide new insight into the role and contribution of cobalt.

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“…Other supply concerns stem from the DRC's history of instability and China's control cobalt refinement [9], [57], [58]. With over 65% of the world's cobalt coming from the DRC, there is a strong reliance on the nation's ability to produce [59]. The DRC's 3,400,000 tons of reserves are the largest in the world, but the U.S. Geological Survey also puts global terrestrial cobalt resources at 25 million tons [9].…”

Section: Cobalt Supplymentioning

confidence: 99%

Reviewing the material and metal security of low-carbon energy transitions

Lee

Bazilian

Sovacool

et al. 2020

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

115

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The global transition to a low-carbon economy will involve changes in material markets and supply chains on a hitherto unknown scale and scope. With these changes come numerous challenges and opportunities related to supply chain security and sustainability. To help support decision-making as well as future research, this study employs a problem-oriented perspective while reviewing academic publications, technical reports, legal documents, and published industry data to highlight the increasingly interconnected nature of material needs and geopolitical change. The paper considers a broad set of issues including technologies, material supplies, investment strategies, communal concerns, innovations, modeling considerations, and policy trends to help contextualize policy decisions and regulatory responses. Policy options are outlined for each topical section, as well as areas for further research. Together, these recommendations serve to help guide the complex, interdisciplinary approach to materials required for a low-carbon transition.

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China's domestic and foreign influence in the global cobalt supply chain

Cited by 108 publications

References 15 publications

Circular economy strategies for electric vehicle batteries reduce reliance on raw materials

Circular economy strategies for electric vehicle batteries reduce reliance on raw materials

Breaking Free from Cobalt Reliance in Lithium-Ion Batteries

Reviewing the material and metal security of low-carbon energy transitions

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