Chitosan and Whey Protein Bio-Inks for 3D and 4D Printing Applications with Particular Focus on Food Industry

Abstract

The application of chitosan (CS) and whey protein (WP) alone or in combination in 3D/4D printing has been well considered in previous studies. Although several excellent reviews on additive manufacturing discussed the properties and biomedical applications of CS and WP, there is a lack of a systemic review about CS and WP bio-inks for 3D/4D printing applications. Easily modified bio-ink with optimal printability is a key for additive manufacturing. CS, WP, and WP–CS complex hydrogel possess great potential in making bio-ink that can be broadly used for future 3D/4D printing, because CS is a functional polysaccharide with good biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-immunogenicity, and non-carcinogenicity, while CS–WP complex hydrogel has better printability and drug-delivery effectivity than WP hydrogel. The review summarizes the current advances of bio-ink preparation employing CS and/or WP to satisfy the requirements of 3D/4D printing and post-treatment of materials. The applications of CS/WP bio-ink mainly focus on 3D food printing with a few applications in cosmetics. The review also highlights the trends of CS/WP bio-inks as potential candidates in 4D printing. Some promising strategies for developing novel bio-inks based on CS and/or WP are introduced, aiming to provide new insights into the value-added development and commercial CS and WP utilization.

4D food printing technology: Structural changes to culinary art and beyond

“…Complex and elaborate structures that resemble meat can be made. Flavorings, minerals, and bioactive chemicals can be added to printed products to improve their nutritional value and taste (Yang et al, 2021). Food items can alter in shape and texture as a result of drying, which is a key food processing technique.…”

Whey Protein Isolate Composites as Potential Scaffolds for Cultivated Meat

“…19,20 Despite this inherent ability to gel, the mechanical properties are less than desirable for muscle and fat tissue and lack tunability. 25,26 To vary the performance of WPI hydrogels, other biomolecules, such as alginate, chitosan, soy protein, and dextran, have been added to WPI slurries and three-dimensional (3D) printing inks; 27,28 however, these interactions were based on electrostatic interactions, 29 thermal-gelling, 30 and entanglement within an ionically cross-linked hydrogel. 31−37 Herein, the objective was to use nonmodified and chemically modified WPI to form covalently cross-linked WPI and alginate hydrogel scaffolds for potential use as cultivated meat scaffolds.…”

“…Whey protein, in either the concentrate (whey protein concentrateWPC, usually 70–80% protein) or isolate (whey protein isolateWPI, >90%) form, is a common food additive as a colloid or gelling agent. In its nonmodified form, WPI will self-gel when heated above 80 °C. , Despite this inherent ability to gel, the mechanical properties are less than desirable for muscle and fat tissue and lack tunability. , To vary the performance of WPI hydrogels, other biomolecules, such as alginate, chitosan, soy protein, and dextran, have been added to WPI slurries and three-dimensional (3D) printing inks; , however, these interactions were based on electrostatic interactions, thermal-gelling, and entanglement within an ionically cross-linked hydrogel. − …”

Improving Chitosan Hydrogels Printability: A Comprehensive Study on Printing Scaffolds for Customized Drug Delivery

“…Chitosan is a natural linear polymer that can be produced through partial deacetylation of chitin, as a result of hydrolysis in an extreme alkaline environment with high temperatures [ 12 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. In nature, chitin can be found in the constitution of a variety of different living forms, mostly on the shells of sea creatures such as crustaceans and shrimps [ 23 , 24 ], but also from the exoskeletons of insects [ 22 , 24 ] and fungi [ 24 ]. Its biocompatibility allows it to be used in the production of drugs and medical devices, such as tablets, patches, implants and wound dressings [ 20 , 24 ].…”

“…Its biocompatibility allows it to be used in the production of drugs and medical devices, such as tablets, patches, implants and wound dressings [ 20 , 24 ]. In addition, chitosan presents a high biodegradability [ 12 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ], allowing the production of modified release drugs [ 20 , 24 ], which combined with its antimicrobial activity, have an effect in the healing process and are suitable for wound dressings [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 24 ]. Moreover, chitosan-based hydrogels may present suitable rheological properties making this material relevant for 3D printing.…”