Chlorate and Other Oxychlorine Contaminants Within the Dairy Supply Chain

Abstract

The presence of chlorate in milk and dairy products can arise from the use of chlorinated water and chlorinated detergents for cleaning and sanitation of process equipment at both farm and food processor level. Chlorate and other oxychlorine species have been associated with inhibition of iodine uptake in humans and the formation of methemoglobin, with infants and young children being a high‐risk demographic. This comprehensive review of chlorate and chlorine derivatives in dairy, highlights areas of concern relative to the origin and/or introduction of chlorate within the dairy supply chain. This review also discusses the associated health concerns, regulations, and chemical behavior of chlorate and chlorine‐derived by‐products, and provides a summary of mechanisms for their detection and removal.

Short communication: Effects of electrochemically activated drinking water on bovine milk production and composition, including chlorate, perchlorate, and fatty acid profile

“…Chlorine has been used for water sanitization (Cheswick et al, 2019). However, chlorate (McCarthy et al, 2018) and other chlorine-derived residues (perchlorate; Capuco et al, 2005) have become a growing concern within the dairy, food, and beverage industries in recent years. In humans, consumption of inorganic chlorine derivatives has been related to hematotoxic and nephrotoxic effects and inhibition of thyroid function (EFSA, 2015).…”

“…For dairy products, the entry points for chlorate lie both at the primary producer (on-farm practices: drinking water) and at the processing level (processing practices, dilution), which are linked to chlorinated water usage, sanitation practices, or both (McCarthy et al, 2018). Water usage, in all aspects of dairy production, remains a critical entry point of chlorate into the supply chain, thus it is necessary to understand how sanitation of water itself influences this risk of cross-contamination into the dairy supply chain.…”

Irish research response to dairy quality in an era of change

“…Thus, to ensure compliance with the EU MRLs with respect to chlorate levels in Irish dairy products, a critical evaluation of cleaning and disinfection procedures applied at farms and processor level was undertaken to assess the impact of chlorine-containing disinfectants on chlorate levels and to assess potential mitigation solutions. The presence of chlorate in milk and dairy products arises primarily from the use of chlorinated water and chlorinated detergents for cleaning and sanitation of equipment at both farm and dairy processor levels (McCarthy et al, 2018). At both farm and processing levels, degradation of hypochlorite and formation of chlorate occurs during storage of concentrated hypochlorite solutions and is dependent on concentration, product storage temperature and pH.…”

Raw Milk Microbiota Modifications as Affected by Chlorine Usage for Cleaning Procedures: The Trentingrana PDO Case

“…Chlorine compounds are commonly used in farms, water treatment, and industrial food manufacturing processes, for sanitation purposes ( McCarthy et al, 2018 ). These compounds, such as sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO) 2 ) and chlorine dioxide (ClO 2 ), possess a high bactericidal activity against food-borne pathogens and, under proper conditions, may prevent the formation of biofilm in milking installation ( Gómez-López et al, 2009 ; Sundberg et al, 2011 ).…”

“…For this reason, a high portion of liquid products used for milking machines cleaning and sanitation contain sodium hypochlorite ( Gleeson et al, 2013 ). However, it has to be considered that the use of chlorine-based products, although effective and inexpensive, leads to the formation of chlorinated residues [i.e., Trichloromethane (TCM) and Chlorate], with associated health concerns that can rise to dangerous levels in milk fat products such as cream and butter, and, thus, are the subject of attention by food regulatory authorities (EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) Gleeson et al, 2013 ; Ryan et al, 2013 ; EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM), 2015 ; McCarthy et al, 2018 ). In addition, the presence of chlorine can potentially influence the composition of the microbiota in milk and milk products.…”