Chromium in the Environment: An Evaluation of Exposure of the Uk General Population and Possible Adverse Health Effects

Abstract

Chromium in the hexavalent form, Cr(VI), has long been recognized as a carcinogen and there is concern as to the effects of continuous low-level exposure to chromium both occupationally and environmentally. This review summarizes the available exposure data and known health effects and evaluates the potential risk to human health in the United Kingdom. Chromium emissions to the environment in the United Kingdom are predominantly derived from fuel combustion, waste incineration, and industrial processes. The less toxic trivalent form of chromium [Cr(III)] is dominant in most environmental compartments, and any Cr(VI), the more toxic form, that is emitted to the environment can be reduced to Cr(III). Food is a major source of exposure to chromium, and estimated daily oral intakes for infants (1 yr), children (11 yr), and adults are 33-45, 123-171, and 246-343 micrograms/person/d, respectively. Soil ingestion, particularly common in young children, can contribute to oral intake. Inhalation is a minor route of exposure for the general population. Average daily inhalation intakes in infants can range from 0.004 microgram/d for rural infants to 0.14 microgram/d for urban infants who are passively exposed to tobacco smoke, whereas adults who live in industrialized areas and smoke may take up between 2 and 12 micrograms/d. The most serious health effect associated with Cr(VI) is lung cancer, which has been associated with some occupational exposure scenarios, whereas Cr(III) is an essential nutrient with a broad safety range and low toxicity. The human body has effective detoxification mechanisms that can reduce ingested or inhaled Cr(VI) to Cr(III). In conclusion, there is no clear evidence to relate exposure to environmental levels of chromium with adverse health effects in either the general UK population or subgroups exposed to chromium around industrialized or contaminated sites. It can be expected that an improved understanding of the relevance of possible long-term accumulation of Cr(III) in the body may facilitate a more complete assessment, in the future, of the health risks in the general population associated with environmental exposure to chromium.

Enrichment and exposure assessment of As, Cr and Pb of the soils in the vicinity of Stawell, Victoria, Australia

“…The toxicity and effects of As (Alam et al 2003(Alam et al , 2002ATSDR 2007aATSDR , 2001Chen et al 1992;Jain and Ali 2000;Liu et al 2002;Manahan 2000;Matschullat 2000;Zheng et al 1999), Cr (ATSDR 2000;Kimbrough et al 1999;Rowbotham et al 2000) and Pb (ATSDR 2007b;Needleman et al 1990) to humans have been well documented and exposure to these elements, through mining, urbanization and industrial activities, may cause health problems on a local scale (ATSDR 2007a(ATSDR , 2007b(ATSDR , 2000Mandal and Suzuki 2002). Children are at the highest risk from ingesting contaminants from soil, particularly at 2-3 years of age (Dudka and Miller 1999;Lottermoser 2002).…”

Assessment of residents’ total environmental exposure to heavy metals in China

“…American and Japanese scholars each simulated the exposure levels and media contribution by Monte-Carlo models and found that drinking water was the main exposure medium in America, with the exception of diet for arsenic, while soil was the largest contributor in Japan 17,18 . In 2010, a study in England found that soil was the main exposure media of Cr 19 , while drinking water was found to be the source of many trace metals, including Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr, Se, As, and Ni, in Iran 20 .…”

With Chromium(VI) Compounds

“…Chromium (VI) can occur naturally in the earth's crust, although it is primarily emitted to the environment as a result of anthropogenic activities. The occurrence and distribution of chromium in the environment has been extensively reviewed (Mukherjee, 1998;Kotaś & Stasicka, 2000;Rowbotham et al, 2000;Ellis et al, 2002;Paustenbach et al, 2003;Guertin et al, 2004;Reinds et al, 2006;Krystek & Ritsema, 2007).…”