Climate Change and Health in the Urban Environment: Adaptation Opportunities in Australian Cities

Abstract

Urban populations are growing rapidly throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Cities are vulnerable to the health impacts of climate change because of their concentration of people and infrastructure, the physical (geographical, material, and structural) attributes of the built environment, and the ecological interdependence with the urban ecosystem. Australia is one of the most highly urbanized countries in the region and its already variable climate is set to become hotter and drier with climate change. Climate change in Australia is expected to increase morbidity and mortality from thermal stress, bacterial gastroenteritis, vector-borne disease, air pollution, flooding, and bushfires. The cost and availability of fresh water, food, and energy will also likely be affected. The more vulnerable urban populations, including the elderly, socioeconomically disadvantaged groups, and those with underlying chronic disease, will be most affected. Adaptation strategies need to address this underlying burden of disease and inequity as well as implement broad structural changes to building codes and urban design, and infrastructure capacity. In doing so, cities provide opportunities to realize "co-benefits" for health (eg, from increased levels of physical activity and improved air quality). With evidence that climate change is underway, the need for cities to be a focus in the development of climate adaptation strategies is becoming more urgent.

Ensuring adaptation to climate change does not increase health risks from the built environment

“…The widespread installation of domestic water tanks in urban areas could exacerbate the situation due to providing increased breeding habitat for mosquitoes [18].…”

“…Flooding is likely to be a factor leading to an increase in morbidity and mortality due to the effects of climate change in Australia [18]. The actual effects of increased flooding are not well known and the health effects associated with being flooded in the UK has been the subject of little research [21], despite the fact that it has been significantly affected by past severe flood events.…”

“…Air pollution is likely to be a factor leading to an increase in morbidity and mortality due to the effects of climate change in Australia [18] and there is a considerable amount of research indicating causation between general air pollution and a range of diseases [73] particularly chronic obstructive pulmonary disease resulting from traffic pollution [74]. We spend over 70% of our time in buildings [75] with little awareness as to how indoor environments may adversely affect public health, such as exposure to known factors of dust mites, endotoxins, mould passive smoke inhalation [75].…”

“…The urban heat island affect is also expected to play a greater part in heat stress and adverse health effects [13,18,[43][44][45][46]. Cities are almost always warmer than surrounding rural areas, especially in city centres with higher building densities -with a differential of 5°C with London [13] -by sometimes more than 10°C warmer than surrounding rural areas [44].…”

“…In order to mitigate increases in morbidity and mortality due to various adverse effects caused by climate change (in Australia) there should be changes to building codes and urban design [18]. This is happening throughout the developed world, but will it be enough given our assumption that all buildings and infrastructure are inherently unsustainable?…”