Climate change impacts on sea-ice ecosystems and associated ecosystem services

Abstract

A rigorous synthesis of the sea-ice ecosystem and linked ecosystem services highlights that the sea-ice ecosystem supports all 4 ecosystem service categories, that sea-ice ecosystems meet the criteria for ecologically or biologically significant marine areas, that global emissions driving climate change are directly linked to the demise of sea-ice ecosystems and its ecosystem services, and that the sea-ice ecosystem deserves specific attention in the evaluation of marine protected area planning. The synthesis outlines (1) supporting services, provided in form of habitat, including feeding grounds and nurseries for microbes, meiofauna, fish, birds and mammals (particularly the key species Arctic cod, Boreogadus saida, and Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, which are tightly linked to the sea-ice ecosystem and transfer carbon from sea-ice primary producers to higher trophic level fish, mammal species and humans); (2) provisioning services through harvesting and medicinal and genetic resources; (3) cultural services through Indigenous and local knowledge systems, cultural identity and spirituality, and via cultural activities, tourism and research; (4) (climate) regulating services through light regulation, the production of biogenic aerosols, halogen oxidation and the release or uptake of greenhouse gases, for example, carbon dioxide. The ongoing changes in the polar regions have strong impacts on sea-ice ecosystems and associated ecosystem services. While the response of sea-ice–associated primary production to environmental change is regionally variable, the effect on ice-associated mammals and birds is predominantly negative, subsequently impacting human harvesting and cultural services in both polar regions. Conservation can help protect some species and functions. However, the key mitigation measure that can slow the transition to a strictly seasonal ice cover in the Arctic Ocean, reduce the overall loss of sea-ice habitats from the ocean, and thus preserve the unique ecosystem services provided by sea ice and their contributions to human well-being is a reduction in carbon emissions.

Corrigendum to doi.org/10.22498/pages.30.2.76-corrigendum "Sea ice: an extraordinary and unique, yet fragile, biome" published in PAGES Magazine, Volume 30, Issue no. 2, 76-77, October 2022.

“…In a rigorous synthesis of the ecosystem services linked to the sea-ice ecosystem, Steiner et al (2021) highlight that the sea-ice ecosystem supports all four ecosystem service categories: "supporting services" provided in the form of habitat, including feeding grounds and nurseries; "provisioning services" through harvesting, and medicinal and genetic resources; "cultural services" through Indigenous and local knowledge systems, cultural identity, and spirituality, and via cultural activities, tourism and research; and "regulating services" such as climate, through light regulation, the production of biogenic aerosols, halogen oxidation and the release/uptake of greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide. Steiner et al (2021) also emphasize that seaice ecosystems meet the criteria for ecologically or biologically significant marine areas and deserve specific attention in evaluating marine-protected area planning since conservation could help protect some species and functions. However, the paucity of seaice observations hinders our ability to understand, prepare for, and manage the changes.…”

Reviews and syntheses: A framework to observe, understand and project ecosystem response to environmental change in the East Antarctic Southern Ocean

“…Life in the Southern Ocean (SO) significantly contributes to global marine biodiversity and ecosystem services (Kennicutt et al, 2019;Steiner et al, 2021) and is, thus, of substantial importance for the global climate, biosphere and human well-being (Grant et al, 2013;Cavanagh et al, 2021). However, there is growing evidence that the Southern Ocean, like polar regions in general, is particularly sensitive to the impacts and risks of environmental change, as highlighted, e.g.…”

“…The projected sea-ice decline and water-column changes (Moline et al, 2004;Trimborn et al, 2017;Eayrs et al, 2021) will profoundly affect primary production and zooplankton composition, with cascading but so far largely unknown implications for the entire SO food web, including top predators and the benthic system (Atkinson et al, 2019;Hill et al, 2019;Steiner et al, 2021). In general, all organisms from different trophic guilds respond to environmental changes by migration or extinction unless they can acclimatize because of phenotypic plasticity and genotypic adaptation through natural selection (Somero, 2012).…”

“…The Antarctic sea ice itself provides the habitat for a variety of unique taxa that contribute significantly to carbon flux and nutrient cycling in the SO (Monti-Birkenmeier et al, 2017;Steiner et al, 2021). Ice algae are an important source of carbon for pelagic and benthic communities (Meiners et al, 2018;Säring et al, 2022).…”

A changing Arctic Ocean

“…The science analysing Arctic environmental change is robust and unequivocal (IPCC 2019(IPCC , 2021AMAP 2021;Ingvaldsen et al 2021;Steiner et al 2021). As highlighted at the recent United Nations 26th Conference of the Parties in Glasgow, the undeniable scientific evidence of Arctic change is fundamental to the agenda driving the necessary swift political and societal change.…”