Co-Evolution and Bio-Social Construction: The Kichwa Agroforestry Systems (Chakras) in the Ecuadorian Amazonia

Abstract

Polycultured agrarian systems in Ecuadorian Amazonia (also called chakras or swollen gardens) are characterised by a market-oriented crop for the generation of monetary income, for example, cocoa, other agricultural products (e.g., banana and cassava), and livestock for family farm consumption. Moreover, a chakra is an outstanding example of agroforestry production, in which ecological, social and economic elements co-evolve from a set of close and strong connections. In this context, the conservation and transformation of their biological subsystems can be understood as the result of complex interactions between anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic factors. In turn, such interactions are essential to provide food and monetary income to the indigenous community. Relevant agency capabilities exist that could cause an agroforestry system to take a different path of co-evolution, that is, towards greater or lesser sustainability associated with different levels of complexity. In conclusion, chakras have key ecological features that can mitigate the impact of human population growth in Amazonia. Additionally, chakras have their own processes of social self-regulation which enhance the possibilities of adaptation of Kichwa communities to changing environmental conditions, being essential elements in local food sovereignty, equitable gender relations and the respect of ancestral wisdom.

Determinants of Agricultural Diversification in a Hotspot Area: Evidence from Colonist and Indigenous Communities in the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve, Ecuadorian Amazon

“…For most migrant settlers and some Kichwa populations in the SBR, the agricultural systems are made up mainly of cash crops, such as pasture for cattle ( Figure 2), cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), coffee (Coffea canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner), maize (Zea mays L.) and naranjilla (Solanum quitoense Lam. ), in addition to staple crops, such as yucca (Manihot esculenta Crantz), plantain (Musa paradisiaca L.) and peach palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth) [48][49][50][51]. These trends are fairly similar to those found in the northern Ecuadorian Amazon Region [37,39,41] and by Vasco et al [52] and Lerner et al [53] in the central and southern Ecuadorian Amazon Region, respectively.…”

“…These trends are fairly similar to those found in the northern Ecuadorian Amazon Region [37,39,41] and by Vasco et al [52] and Lerner et al [53] in the central and southern Ecuadorian Amazon Region, respectively. For most of the Kichwa population, the "Chakra" system is the most common traditional agroforestry system [48,51,54,55]. It is characterized by its high level of biodiversity and high number of timber-yielding and fruit trees [48,51,56,57].…”

“…For most of the Kichwa population, the "Chakra" system is the most common traditional agroforestry system [48,51,54,55]. It is characterized by its high level of biodiversity and high number of timber-yielding and fruit trees [48,51,56,57]. The chakra in the SBR is also considered a polyculture [48,56], where the principal crops are cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), coffee (Coffea canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner) and nowadays guayusa (Ylex Guayusa Loes) [58,59].…”

“…It is characterized by its high level of biodiversity and high number of timber-yielding and fruit trees [48,51,56,57]. The chakra in the SBR is also considered a polyculture [48,56], where the principal crops are cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), coffee (Coffea canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner) and nowadays guayusa (Ylex Guayusa Loes) [58,59]. These crops grow alongside plants used for medicine, spiritual rituals, making crafts and other consumption purposes [48], as well as together with forest trees (see Vera et al [56]) and fruit trees for consumption and multipurpose materials ( Figure 3).…”

“…The chakra in the SBR is also considered a polyculture [48,56], where the principal crops are cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), coffee (Coffea canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner) and nowadays guayusa (Ylex Guayusa Loes) [58,59]. These crops grow alongside plants used for medicine, spiritual rituals, making crafts and other consumption purposes [48], as well as together with forest trees (see Vera et al [56]) and fruit trees for consumption and multipurpose materials ( Figure 3). According to Torres and colleagues [51] there are nearly 12,500 ha of cacao cultivated in the chakra system in the buffer and transition areas of the SBR, with the size of chakra plots ranging from 0.5 to 4 ha [51].…”