CO2 Intensities and Primary Energy Factors in the Future European Electricity System

Abstract

The European Union strives for sharp reductions in both CO2 emissions as well as primary energy use. Electricity consuming technologies are becoming increasingly important in this context, due to the ongoing electrification of transport and heating services. To correctly evaluate these technologies, conversion factors are needed—namely CO2 intensities and primary energy factors (PEFs). However, this evaluation is hindered by the unavailability of a high-quality database of conversion factor values. Ideally, such a database has a broad geographical scope, a high temporal resolution and considers cross-country exchanges of electricity as well as future evolutions in the electricity mix. In this paper, a state-of-the-art unit commitment economic dispatch model of the European electricity system is developed and a flow-tracing technique is innovatively applied to future scenarios (2025–2040)—to generate such a database and make it publicly available. Important dynamics are revealed, including an overall decrease in conversion factor values as well as considerable temporal variability at both the seasonal and hourly level. Furthermore, the importance of taking into account imports and carefully considering the calculation methodology for PEFs are both confirmed. Future estimates of the CO2 emissions and primary energy use associated with individual electrical loads can be meaningfully improved by taking into account these dynamics.

Balancing environmental impact, energy use and thermal comfort: Optimizing insulation levels for The Mobble with standard HVAC and personal comfort systems

“…building codes. On the one hand, the results show that advanced demand based HVAC systems (with PCS as the most extreme case) hardly affect the optimal insulation thickness, while on the other hand, the energy mix has a considerable [25] with CO 2 intensity levels for future developments in the electricity mix [20]. impact on this optimal insulation thickness.…”

“…15 shows the total environmental impact of all considered European electricity mixes and their corresponding CO 2 equivalent emissions. In this graph, the CO 2 intensities from a recent study by Hamels [20] are indicated in order to frame future developments in the electricity mix. In this overview Belgium is situated in the first quartile, but looking at the developments for 2040 the environmental impact is anticipated to decrease to the minimum value assumed in this paper.…”

“…In addition to improving the building envelope and increasing HVAC system efficiency, improvements on the energy generation can have an impact on the balance between the material impact and operational energy: the less environmental polluting energy is produced, the less impact the 'use phase' has on the total environmental impact. A recent study by Hamels [20] calculates the CO 2 intensity of the electricity grid today and in the future, using three future energy scenario's: Distributed Generation (DG), Sustainable Transition (ST) and Global Climate Action (GCA) [20]. The DG-scenario focusses on the prosumers and assumes a fuel switching society with small-scale generation and batteries.…”

“…The GCA-scenario relies on an extensive decarbonisation with large-scale renewables in both electricity and gas sectors [21]. The decarbonisation of the electricity grid leads to a reduction of the average European CO 2 intensity with values in 2020 of 259 g/kWh, to values in 2040 between 90 g/kWh and 146 g/kWh, depending on the scenario [20]. Current LCA studies on building level omit this variation, instead a yearly impact is multiplied by the lifespan of the building.…”

Cutting Oxygen Production-Related Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Improved Compression Heat Management in a Cryogenic Air Separation Unit

“…For even more precise carbon accounting for processes with very variable power demand, daily or even hourly MEF are recommended to be applied [53]. Several analyses attempted to assign energy consumption and the associated GHG emissions to industrial branches [54] and society spheres [55] and to formulate suitable emission factors predictions for decades ahead [56,57]. Even though power production becomes gradually cleaner as advanced techniques and flue gas cleaning systems are adopted in thermal plants and old plants are ruled out of service [58], MEF values were agreed to be highly spatiotemporally specific.…”