Coercive Distribution

Abstract

Kazakhstan, an oil producer since 1911, has the second-largest oil reserves and the second-largest oil production among the former Soviet republics after Russia.Kazakhstan is a major oil producer. The country's estimated total petroleum and other liquids production was 1.698 million barrels per day (b/d) in 2016. The key to its continued growth in liquids production from this level is the development of its giant Tengiz, Karachaganak, and Kashagan fields. Development of additional export capacity will also be necessary for production growth.Although Kazakhstan became an oil producer in 1911, its production did not increase to a meaningful level until the 1960s and 1970s, when production plateaued at nearly 500,000 b/d, a pre-Soviet independence record production level. Since the mid-1990s, and with the help of major international oil companies, Kazakhstan's production first exceeded 1 million b/d in 2003.Oil field development in Kazakhstan reached two milestones in 2016. In October 2016, the giant Kashagan field resumed production after years of delays. Kashagan is expected to produce 370,000 b/d of liquids at full capacity. Additionally, in July 2016, The Tengizchevroil consortium decided to proceed with expansion plans that should increase liquids production at the Tengiz project by about 260,000 b/d beginning in 2022.Kazakhstan is landlocked and is far from international oil markets. The lack of access to the open ocean makes the country dependent mainly on pipelines to transport its hydrocarbons to world markets. Kazakhstan is also a transit country for oil and natural gas pipeline exports to China. Kazakhstan consumed 2.66 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) of energy in 2014, with coal accounting for the largest share of energy consumed (63%), followed by petroleum and natural gas (18% and 16%, respectively) (Figure 2). Kazakhstan is a Caspian Sea littoral state. The legal status of the Caspian area remains unresolved, mainly driven by a lack of agreement on whether the Caspian is a sea or a lake. Until all states agree on a definition, the legal status of the area will remain unresolved.

Political Budget Cycles in Autocracies: The Role of Religious Seasons and Political Collective Action

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Poverty alleviation and state building in peripheral areas: evidence from China

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Social policies in democratic and authoritarian regimes: comparing the introduction and implementation of the National Rural Employment Guarantee in India and Dibao in China

“…Research has investigated the origins of social assistance (Leisering, 2008) and shown that an overwhelming number of social insurance programs were initially adopted by authoritarian governments (Mares & Carnes, 2009). Indeed, scholars have documented how some of the world's most redistributive regimes have been authoritarian (Albertus, Fenner, & Slater, 2018). If the poor do not have the right to organise and express their grievances, and are unable to participate in a competitive electoral process, then why would authoritarian regimes distribute beyond their closest political allies?…”