Cognitive processing styles of children and adolescents with headache and back pain: a longitudinal epidemiological study

Abstract

BackgroundPrevious research has shown positive relationships between dysfunctional cognitive styles and different aspects of pain (eg, pain frequency). One goal of our longitudinal study was to investigate potential risk factors for the incidence of headache (HA) and back pain (BP).MethodsIn the first wave (2003), questionnaires were sent to 6,400 children between the ages of 9 and 14 years. Those who answered in wave 1 were contacted again every year (four survey waves in total: 2003–2006). The data presented are based on the children’s self-reports in the second wave (2004) and third wave (2005). Potential risk factors (dysfunctional stress coping, pain catastrophizing, anxiety sensitivity, and somatosensory amplification) were collected in wave 2. Binary logistic regression analyses – for boys and girls – were performed to assess the predictive value of the risk factors for HA and BP in wave 3.ResultsIn the comprehensive model, none of the examined variables predicted the incidence of HA. Anxiety sensitivity increased the risk that boys would report BP after 1 year by 50% and dysfunctional stress coping increased the risk by 40%. For girls, somatosensory amplification increased the risk of the incidence of BP 1 year later by 80%, whereas pain catastrophizing reduced the risk by 50%.ConclusionIn this incidence sample, the amount of variance explained by the psychological variables investigated was very small. Integrating this result with existing findings from cross-sectional studies suggests that dysfunctional cognitive processing styles may develop more as a consequence or a concomitant feature of BP or HA, but play a less important role in its initial development.

Exploring Temporal Patterns of Stress in Adolescent Girls with Headache

“…Increases in school‐related stress significantly increase the risk of headaches in both girls and boys (Natvig, Albrektsen, Anderssen, & Qvarnstrøm, ). In a longitudinal survey study examining risk factors for recurrent headache, the strongest predictors for recurrent headaches were academic problems (Gaßmann, Barke, van Gessel, & Kröner‐Herwig, ), an inability to cope with stress, and somatosensory amplification (Barke, Gaßmann, & Kröner‐Herwig, ). Not surprisingly, compared to children without headaches, children with headaches have a tendency to experience less satisfaction with school (Carlsson et al, ).…”

Predicting the occurrence of headache and back pain in young adults by biopsychological characteristics assessed at childhood or adolescence

“…In addition, our recent research on the population sample showed more or less close linkages with psychosocial factors such as quality of family interaction, school stress and certain psychological characteristics of children with headache of every type. These studies consisted of cross-sectional analyses or longitudinal designs with short intervals 1,15–17…”

“…Anxiety sensitivity defined as a disposition to feel threatened by physiological symptoms of arousal and anxiety seems to be heightened in children with headache and other recurrent pains 17,22–26. There is also evidence that it predicts anxiety disorders and other Axis I disorders classified by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition ( DSM-IV ) in later life 27…”

“…The analysis of another psychological variable, i.e., dysfunctional stress coping, promised to offer further knowledge regarding the association of stress processing and pain 17,31,32. According to Lazarus and Folkman,33 the failure to adequately cope with problems either by cognitive reappraisal or by tackling the problem situation itself will maintain the state of stress in the individual and is assumed to contribute to pain and psychological dysfunctions.…”

“…A catastrophizing manner of pain processing, a well-researched strategy of evaluating and coping with pain, is long known to influence pain experience 17,24,31,34…”