Cognitive profiles of reading disability: Comparisons of discrepancy and low achievement definitions.

Fletcher, Jack Μ.; Shaywitz, Sally E.; Shankweiler, Donald; Katz, Leonard; Liberman, Isabelle Y.; Stuebing, Karla K.; Francis, D.; Fowler, Anne; Shaywitz, Bennett A.

doi:10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.6

Cited by 509 publications

(447 citation statements)

References 78 publications

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“…In general, absolute gains are large even when a child is mildly mentally retarded, or fits a "learning disability" profile of age/IQ discrepancies to reading scores. This confirms other research that has shown the discrepancy measure to be invalid as a diagnostic criteria for a "learning disability" or "dyslexia" (Fletcher et al 1994;Stanovich and Siegel 1994). In fact, our results challenge the notion of a spedal reading disability such as "dyslexia," confirming the conclusions of Slavin and his group (Slavin, Karweit, and Wasik 1994) who argue that all children, barring the mentally retarded, can be taught to read if the reading program and the method of delivery are effective.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 77%

Phono-GraphixTM: A new method for remediating reading difficulties

McGuinness

1996

Annals of Dyslexia

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Eighty-seven children, 6 to 16 years of age, with reading and/or spelling difficulties were trained in a new program (Phono-Graphix™) that emphasizes phoneme awareness training, sound-to-print orientation, curriculum design sequenced by orthographic complexity, and active parental supervision in homework assignments. The children's initial level of competence to access the alphabet code was revealed by diagnostic testing, and individualized sequences of instruction were developed. The children received 12 hours or less of one-to-one training, one hour per week. Children gained an average of 13.7 standard score points on word recognition (1.70 points per clinical hour) and 19.34 standard score points on nonsense word decoding (2.57 points per clinical hour).In this paper we present research on a new instructional method, Phono-Graphix™, that relies on twenty years of research on the origin of reading failure. This method is based on a large body of empirical evidence identifying lack of phoneme awareness as a major component of children's poor decoding skills. It is based as well on a new understanding of the rationale and structure of writing systems, and of English orthography in particular. This has made it possible to design a sequence of instruction that fits with the child's logical development. Phono-Graphix is an attempt to integrate these components into one coherent curriculum and method of instruction. The results have been very promising.The most well-known finding in reading research is that poor reading skills are associated with an inability to access the phonemic level of language, and thus, the phonemic basis of the alphabet code (Rosner and Simon 1971; Calfee, Lindamood, and Undamood 1973;Fox and Routh 1975;Bradley and Bryant 1978;Shankweiler et al. 1979; Lundberg, Olafsson and Wall 1980, Stanovich, Cunningham andCramer 1984;Tunmer and Nesdale 1985; and see reviews by McGuinness 1981McGuinness , 1985Wagner and Torgesen 1987). It is now equally clear that training in phonological awareness by itself does not automatically guarantee superior or even adequate decoding skills, and must be combined with training in the alphabet principle (Bradley and Bryant 1985;Ball and Blachman 1988;McGuinness, McGuinness, and Donohue 1995).Research shows that natural skill in phonological awareness aids reading acquisition, and that instruction in an alphabetic writing system aids phonemic awareness (Morals et al. 1979; Read et al. 1986;Ben-Dror, Frost, and Bentin 1995). A clear demonstration of this reciprocal effect has been provided by McGuinness, McGuinness, and Donohue (1995). Two first-grade classroom teachers were trained in a reading program (Auditory Discrimination in Depth, Undamood 1969, 1975) that integrates training in

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 77%

Phono-GraphixTM: A new method for remediating reading difficulties

McGuinness

1996

Annals of Dyslexia

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“…In addition, IQ-achievement discrepancy scores were not significantly correlated with initial growth in reading performance following one semester of one-to-one tutoring (Vellutino, Scanlon, & Lyon, 2000; see also Share, McGee, & Silva, 1989). Presently, there is a large body of research showing that children with IQ discrepant and IQ non-discrepant reading scores cannot be adequately differentiated, vis-à -vis response to instruction or prognosis (see Francis, Fowler, & Shaywitz, 1994;Fletcher et al, 1994Fletcher et al, , 2002Lyon et al, 2001Lyon et al, , 2002Vellutino, Scanlon, & Lyon, 2000). There are also two recent meta-analyses showing null to small differences between the cognitive skills of these two populations (Hoskyn & Swanson, 2000;Steubing et al, 2002).…”

Section: Dyslexia Across the Life-spanmentioning

confidence: 99%

Specific reading disability (dyslexia): what have we learned in the past four decades?

Vellutino

Fletcher

Snowling

et al. 2004

Child Psychology Psychiatry

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1,591

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We summarize some of the most important findings from research evaluating the hypothesized causes of specific reading disability (ÔdyslexiaÕ) over the past four decades. After outlining components of reading ability, we discuss manifest causes of reading difficulties, in terms of deficiencies in component reading skills that might lead to such difficulties. The evidence suggests that inadequate facility in word identification due, in most cases, to more basic deficits in alphabetic coding is the basic cause of difficulties in learning to read. We next discuss hypothesized deficiencies in readingrelated cognitive abilities as underlying causes of deficiencies in component reading skills. The evidence in these areas suggests that, in most cases, phonological skills deficiencies associated with phonological coding deficits are the probable causes of the disorder rather than visual, semantic, or syntactic deficits, although reading difficulties in some children may be associated with general language deficits. Hypothesized deficits in general learning abilities (e.g., attention, association learning, cross-modal transfer etc.) and low-level sensory deficits have weak validity as causal factors in specific reading disability. These inferences are, by and large, supported by research evaluating the biological foundations of dyslexia. Finally, evidence is presented in support of the idea that many poor readers are impaired because of inadequate instruction or other experiential factors. This does not mean that biological factors are not relevant, because the brain and environment interact to produce the neural networks that support reading acquisition. We conclude with a discussion of the clinical implications of the research findings, focusing on the need for enhanced instruction.

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“…In other words, problems in performing and applying PA capabilities are at the heart of most children's reading difficulties, regardless of other types of language and cognitive difficulties (Phillips, Clancy-Menchetti, & Lonigan, 2008). Additional studies (e.g., Ashour, 2011;Bradley & Bryant, 1983;Bruck, 1992Bruck, , 1993Fawcett & Nicholson, 1995;Fletcher et al, 1994;Fox & Routh, 1980;Lindamood, Bell, & Lindamood, 1992;Lyon, 1995) have shown the significance of PA in the assessment and remediation of the individuals who have difficulty in reading (Ehri et al, 2001). …”

Section: Pa and Dyslexiamentioning

confidence: 99%

Phonological Awareness and Working Memory in Arabic-Speaking Egyptian Preschool Children at Risk for Dyslexia

Zayed¹,

Roehrig²,

Arrastia-Lloyd³

et al. 2013

IJPS

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This purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between phonological awareness, verbal working memory, and risk for dyslexia in Arabic language in preschool children. The participants of this study were preschool children between the ages of five and six, who represented two groups: (20) children at risk for dyslexia and (20) children normal without any risk for dyslexia. These children were randomly selected from a larger sample of 425 preschool children in Egypt. Phonological awareness and verbal working memory tasks were used to compare children's abilities. The findings indicate that there is a strong relationship between phonological awareness and working memory. In addition, phonological awareness and working memory may have an effect on children's phonological sensitivity and reading skills.

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Cognitive profiles of reading disability: Comparisons of discrepancy and low achievement definitions.

Cited by 509 publications

References 78 publications

Phono-GraphixTM: A new method for remediating reading difficulties

Phono-GraphixTM: A new method for remediating reading difficulties

Specific reading disability (dyslexia): what have we learned in the past four decades?

Phonological Awareness and Working Memory in Arabic-Speaking Egyptian Preschool Children at Risk for Dyslexia

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