Cohort Changes in the Level and Dispersion of Gender Ideology after German Reunification: Results from a Natural Experiment

Abstract

Modernization theorists’ ‘rising tide hypothesis’ predicted the continuous spread of egalitarian gender ideologies across the globe. We revisit this assumption by studying reunified Germany, a country that did not follow a strict modernization pathway. The socialist German Democratic Republic (GDR) actively fostered female employment and systematically promoted egalitarian ideologies before reunification with West Germany and the resulting incorporation into a conservative welfare state and market economy. Based on nationally representative, pooled cross-sectional data from the German General Social Survey (ALLBUS) from 1991 to 2016, we apply variance function regression to examine the impact of German reunification—akin to a natural experiment—on the average levels and dispersion of gender ideology. The results show: (i) East German cohorts socialized after reunification hold less egalitarian ideologies than cohorts socialized in the GDR, disrupting the rising tide. (ii) East German cohorts hold more egalitarian ideologies than West German cohorts, but the East-West gap is less pronounced for post-reunification cohorts. (iii) Cohorts in East Germany show higher conformity with gender ideology than their counterparts in West Germany; yet conformity did not change after reunification. (iv) Younger cohorts in West Germany show higher conformity with gender ideology than older cohorts.

Can Regional Gender Ideologies Account for Variation of the Gender Pay Gap? The Case of Germany

“…A stark dierence can be observed between East and West Germany with regions of the former GDR being less traditional (depicted in brighter shades). 6 Beyond this previously highlighted dierence (Ebner et al 2020), Figure 2b indicates evidence of further substantial variation across German labor market regions. For instance, the southern federal States of Bavaria and Baden-Wuerttemberg yield more traditional gender ideologies than the rest of Germany (Di.= 0.256, p < 0.001) and net o the East-West dierences, rural labor market regions display more traditional gender ideologies than urban and agglomorated labor market regions (Di.= −0.127, p = 0.034).…”

“…Scarborough and Sin 2020). Most prominently for Germany, gendered expectations are shaped by the legacy of the GDR with East Germans being more supportive of mother's employment and of an equal division of responsibilities within couples (Lee et al 2007, Ebner et al 2020. Furthermore, women especially working women are more likely than men to hold progressive gender beliefs, potentially since progressive beliefs promise them better opportunities in the labor market (Bolzendahl and Myers 2004).…”

“…Thereby, this study makes three contributions. First, previous research on gender ideologies emphasizes more egalitarian attitudes in the former GDR in comparison to West Germany (Lee et al 2007, Ebner et al 2020), yet, the extent of further regional heterogeneity remains an open question. In response, I describe substantial regional-variation of gender ideologies across German labor market regions.…”

Mothers', Fathers' and Siblings' Housework Time Within Family Households

“…The well-documented gender inequality in housework is particularly relevant to the context of the present study, as German society is characterized by a moderate separate spheres model with prevailing traditional gender ideologies and gender-specific behavior patterns in the family. Although Germany has experienced remarkable changes in gendered time use patterns (Leopold et al, 2018; and gender role attitudes (Ebner et al, 2020) over decades and cohorts, women still do much more housework than men and are generally held responsible for this kind of labor. This notion of separate spheres is also reflected in a gender-typed segregation of housework tasks, as women are more involved in routine housework tasks, such as cooking, cleaning, and doing the laundry, while men are more inclined to refrain from these activities and are more likely to perform non-routine chores, such as repairs or administrative paperwork (Blair, 1992a;Goldscheider & Waite, 1991).…”

May your wealth be easily divisible by two: marital dissolution and personal wealth of German men and women over the life course

“…In contrast, social norms around the advantages of outof-home care for children's development -as well as pronatalist family programmes that facilitated the compatibility of family life and work for all social strata -encouraged Eastern German women's engagement in the labour market (Huinink et al, 1995;Kreyenfeld, 2004). Although family policies of the former East were replaced by Western German policies during the Germany reunification, gender egalitarian attitudes have remained higher in the former East compared to the former West (Ebner, Kühhirt, & Lersch, 2020). Lasting differences between the former East and West are also reflected in currently higher part-time employment and inactivity rates amongst Western German married women -and particularly mothers -compared to Eastern German women.…”