“…Based on prior literature [13,[46][47][48], firm-level control variables include size (Size), leverage (Lev), age (Age), capital intensity (PPE), operating cash flows (OpeCashFlow), return on assets (ROA), and sales growth (SalesGrowth). Following Liu et al [41], province-level determinants of labor costs are also considered in Eq (1), including GDP per capita (ProvGDP), GDP growth (ProvGDPGrowth), population (ProvPop), and wage per capita (ProvWage). The definitions and data sources for all variables are presented in Table 1.…”