Communication and Language in Learners Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing With Disabilities: Theories, Research, and Practice

Abstract

Findings are presented from communication intervention research in three areas related to deafness with disability (DWD): D/deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) with (a) intellectual disability, (b) autism spectrum disorders, (c) deafblindness. Early identification, prevalence, theoretical perspectives, and evidence-based practices are discussed. Developmental theory, behavioral theory, and social-interactionism theory undergird many assessment and intervention practices in communication. The tri-focus framework and the four aspects of communication are useful frameworks. While communication research is a relative strength in the deafblindness field, a dire need exists for research in the other two DWD areas. Across all DWD areas there is a need for interventions addressing receptive language. Effective communication and language intervention can only occur when children who are DWD are identified early, placed in individually suitable classrooms with appropriately prepared professionals, and provided with services that build on their strengths and meet their needs.

Children Who Are Deaf/Hard of Hearing with Disabilities: Paths to Language and Literacy

“…Children who are DHH vary widely in degree of hearing loss, age at onset of hearing loss, presence of assistive listening devices including hearing aids and cochlear implants, home language, and chosen communication modalities [39]. However, across the range, language development is often delayed due to reduced access to language [1,20]. Such delays are likely to be magnified in children who are DWD who might struggle with receptive and expressive language as well as both visual and auditory language [1,11].…”

“…However, across the range, language development is often delayed due to reduced access to language [1,20]. Such delays are likely to be magnified in children who are DWD who might struggle with receptive and expressive language as well as both visual and auditory language [1,11]. Children who are DWD with physical disabilities may have difficulty with fine motor control that can inhibit both sign and spoken language [11].…”

“…Children with ASD may struggle with visual attention to faces and gestures and both communication and social delays are known hallmarks of ASD [5,27,40]. Finally, children with intellectual disabilities may have difficulties with joint attention and might need additional processing time to receive and express language [1,26]. Studies examining auditory receptive and expressive language development of children who were DWD and received cochlear implants or hearing aids prior to 3 years of age found that as a group, at age 3 and 5, language scores on standardized tests improved; however, when examined by type of disability, language scores of children with ASD, developmental disabilities, and cerebral palsy in addition to hearing loss, declined relative to typically developing peers.…”

“…The population of students who are dDeaf/hard of hearing with disabilities (DWD) is difficult to characterize and quantify, yet is thought to comprise between 40% to 50% of the population of students who are d/Deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) in the United States [1][2][3][4]. Students who are DWD are extremely diverse and reflect both diversity of the DHH population as well as variation in type and severity of the various accompanying disabilities (e.g., variation in expression of autism spectrum disorder) [5].…”

Deaf/hard Of Hearing Preschool Students’ Acquisition Of Language Through Dyadic And Triadic Communication Contexts

“…Another factor besides language that can affect motor development are additional disabilities. The prevalence of students who are deaf with additional disabilities (DWD) is estimated to be 30-40% of D/HH students (Bruce & Borders, 2015;GRI, 2009;Wiley & Meinzen-Derr, 2013). Some of these additional disabilities adversely affect motor domain development.…”