“…Many of these work alongside, and often in competition with, some of the 20-30 million artisanal and small-scale miners worldwide who use much simpler and portable technologies or simply hard rubber pans (see, for example, Buxton, 2013;Hilson and Yakovleva, 2007). This extension of mining across vast areas of the earth, including under the oceans, has had both negative and positive impacts on the most proximate populations and environments, as well as those far from the immediate scenes of environmental and social impacts (Bebbington et al, 2008;Bury, 2008;Castilhos et al, 2006;Langston et al, 2015;Spiegel and Veiga, 2010). Yet, mining operations have also been implicated in conflict, been accused of making false promises, and contributed to disruptive transformations in nearby economies and communities (Ferguson, 1999;Horowitz, 2010;Le Billon, 2012).…”