Comparison of adjuvant emulsions for their safety and ability to enhance the antibody response in horses immunized with African snake venoms

Clinical effects of immunization, bleeding, and albumin-based fluid therapy in horses used as immunoglobulin source to produce a polyspecific antivenom (Echitab-plus-ICP) towards venoms of African snakes

“…After 10 days, a 10–15 cm diameter area of mild swelling developed at the injection site in some horses, but none of the animals immunized developed abscesses, fistulas, or fibrosis. This contrasts with the results obtained by immunizing horses with these venoms but mixed with various types of emulsion adjuvants ( Arguedas et al, 2022 ) or with viperid venoms from Costa Rica ( Angulo et al, 1997 ). This discrepancy is explained by the fact that in the present study, immunogens were formulated without adjuvants, which are largely responsible for the development of local lesions ( Arguedas et al, 2022 ).…”

“…The horses used in this study are part of the regular immunization schemes at Instituto Clodomiro Picado. Initially, new horses are subjected to immunization following the scheme described by Arguedas et al (2022) . After seven weeks at rest following immunization with venoms and bleeding, the horses were re-immunized by the subcutaneous injection of 5 mg of a mixture in equal parts of venoms of adult specimens of Bitis arietans (Latoxan, batch #322.061), Echis ocellatus (Latoxan, batch #200.171), Dendroaspis polylepis (Latoxan, batch #416.031), and Naja nigricollis (Latoxan, batch #616.031) ( Gutiérrez et al, 2005 ).…”

“…During immunization, some adjuvants (e.g., Montanide or Freund's adjuvants) cause local tissue damage such as granulomas and abscesses, and general reactions such as arthritis and fever ( Fukanoki et al, 2001 ; Jansen et al, 2007 ; Arguedas et al, 2022 ). Commonly, these abscesses fistulize, exposing the damaged tissue to secondary infections that hinder healing.…”

“…Immunization of animals for antivenom production starts with an initial cycle of immunization in naïve horses. A previous study evaluated the impact of this initial immunization, using various adjuvants, in the health of horses that receive venoms of African snakes for the production of EchiTAb-plus-ICP antivenom ( Arguedas et al, 2022 ). After the initial immunization scheme, horses are submitted to periodic booster injections of venom for continuous antivenom production.…”

Hematobiochemical and Immunological Profiles of Horses Used for Preparation of ‎Antitetanic hyperimmune Serum by Different Types of Adjuvants

“…Tetanus vaccine has been linked to i mmune thrombocytopenia (ITP) and an acquired coagulopathy brought by antibodymediated platelet destruction which could explain the significant reduction in platelet count observed in vaccinated groups in this work (Halperin et al, 2018 andBanerjee et al, 2021). No significant differences were recorded in the mean values of the platelets count between the control and IFA and CFA groups as reported by Arguedas et al, (2022).…”