Comparison of Genotoxicity and Cytotoxicity of Polyvinyl Chloride and Poly(methyl methacrylate) Nanoparticles on Normal Human Lung Cell Lines

Abstract

High concentrations of micro- and nanoparticles of common plastic materials present in the environment are causing an adverse health impact on living organisms. As a model study, here we report the synthesis and characterization of luminescent polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and poly­(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) nanoparticles and investigate the interaction with normal human lung fibroblast cells (IMR 90) to understand the uptake, translocation, and toxicity of PVC and PMMA nanoparticles. The synthesized particles are in the size range of 120–140 nm with a negative surface potential. The colocalization and uptake efficiency of the nanoparticles were analyzed, and the cytotoxicity assay shows significant reduction in cell viability. Cellular internalization was investigated using colocalization and dynasore inhibitor tests, which showed that the PVC and PMMA nanoparticles enter into the cell via endocytosis. The polymer nanoparticles induced a reduction in viability, decrease in adenosine triphosphate, and increase in reactive oxygen species and lactate dehydrogenase concentrations. In addition, the polymer nanoparticles caused cell cycle arrest at sub-G1, G0/G1, and G2/M phases, followed by apoptotic cell death. Our results reported here are important to the emerging data on understanding the impact of common polymer particles on human health.

On the Cellular Uptake and Exocytosis of Carbon Dots─Significant Cell Type Dependence and Effects of Cell Division

“…This is consistent with findings from previous studies on other NPs with higher particle concentrations and higher cellular uptake. 10,33,34,47,48 On the time dependence, the intracellular CDs-PEI content increases over time and consistently reaches the maximum at around 4 h in all of the cell lines and then declines dramatically in HeLa, A549, and MDA-MB-468 (Figure 1a,b,e) but not in BEAS-2B and A431 cells (Figure 1c,d), where the content remains at a similar level or decreases slightly. The use of higher CDs-PEI concentration has little effect on the time for the intracellular content to reach the maximum, which is different from some findings on other NPs in the literature.…”

“…3,7−9 Nevertheless, there have been studies demonstrating that the toxicity of NPs is positively correlated to their contents in cells. 10,11 NPs trapped in cells for a long period of time may induce various adverse effects, such as cell growth inhibition, asymmetric intercellular metastasis, and cytotoxicity. 10,12−14 The amount of NPs in cells depends not only on their cellular uptake but also on their exocytosis and the cell division.…”

“…Since cell is the basic unit of organisms, the interaction between nanoparticles (NPs) and cells should be investigated and understood as a valuable model. NPs can be internalized by cells, transported in cells, and excreted by cells. , A great deal of research has been carried out on the cellular uptake and translocation of NPs in cells, though the study on the exocytosis process of NPs is still rare, − due in part to some views in the research community that the efflux of NPs is very small. ,− Nevertheless, there have been studies demonstrating that the toxicity of NPs is positively correlated to their contents in cells. , NPs trapped in cells for a long period of time may induce various adverse effects, such as cell growth inhibition, asymmetric intercellular metastasis, and cytotoxicity. ,− The amount of NPs in cells depends not only on their cellular uptake but also on their exocytosis and the cell division . In addition, various NP-based drug delivery platforms have been developed to increase the drug contents in cells for improved therapeutic performance, but there has not been enough attention paid to the fate of these NP carriers in cells, including for example that they could be trapped in the cells. − Thus, comprehensive studies are in demand on the exocytosis of NPs, which is an indispensable part of the interaction between NPs and cells. ,, The results will provide a better guide in the design of nanomaterials that are more conducive to the targeted applications, with favorable characteristics of the resulting NP carriers such as entering cells more readily, releasing the delivered drugs more precisely, and leaving the cells quickly post-delivery to have minimal impacts on the cells.…”

Transfer of Poly(methyl methacrylate) Nanoparticles from Parents to Offspring and the Protection Mechanism in Two Marine Invertebrates

“…Fluorescence was also absent inside the proteinaceous oviducal sac (Figure E), which suggests that it can physically exclude aggregates of fluorescent PMMA nanoparticles. In related experiments, human cells that were exposed to polymer particles showed discrete fluorescence from particles inside the cells. , Such results show that the observed fluorescence was localized within PMMA nanoparticle aggregates, hence indicating that the encapsulated fluorophore did not leach from the PMMA nanoparticles.…”

“…In related experiments, human cells that were exposed to polymer particles showed discrete fluorescence from particles inside the cells. 63,64 Such results show that the observed fluorescence was localized within PMMA nanoparticle aggregates, hence indicating that the encapsulated fluorophore did not leach from the PMMA nanoparticles.…”