Competitors Who Choose to Be Red Have Higher Testosterone Levels

Farrelly, Daniel; Slater, Rebecca; Elliott, Hannah R; Walden, Hannah; Wetherell, Mark

doi:10.1177/0956797613482945

Cited by 21 publications

(18 citation statements)

References 13 publications

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“…In humans, several studies have shown that colour stimuli have similar effects on social perception [8,9] and behaviour such as the outcome of physical and virtual contests (see [10] for review). Being associated with or wearing red are also linked to higher heart rate, a greater pre-performance strength and higher testosterone levels [11,12]. These effects may be explained by psychological associations of red coloration with dominance and aggression that boost redwearers' confidence and/or intimidate their opponents [13], although the effect may be restricted to males [14].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Red clothing increases perceived dominance, aggression and anger

et al. 2015

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The presence and intensity of red coloration correlate with male dominance and testosterone in a variety of animal species, and even artificial red stimuli can influence dominance interactions. In humans, red stimuli are perceived as more threatening and dominant than other colours, and wearing red increases the probability of winning sporting contests. We investigated whether red clothing biases the perception of aggression and dominance outside of competitive settings, and whether red influences decoding of emotional expressions. Participants rated digitally manipulated images of men for aggression and dominance and categorized the emotional state of these stimuli. Men were rated as more aggressive and more dominant when presented in red than when presented in either blue or grey. The effect on perceived aggression was found for male and female raters, but only male raters were sensitive to red as a signal of dominance. In a categorization test, images were significantly more often categorized as 'angry' when presented in the red condition, demonstrating that colour stimuli affect perceptions of emotions. This suggests that the colour red may be a cue used to predict propensity for dominance and aggression in human males.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Red clothing increases perceived dominance, aggression and anger

et al. 2015

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“…Displays of red chips promote actors' competitive approach and perceivers' withdrawal during poker games, 17 and people with high testosterone levels tend to prefer red symbols when representing themselves in a competitive task. 18 Consistent with these theories, red preference depends on context and ecological objects. However, previous studies have mostly focused on personal preference for the color red in interpersonal competitive contexts (e.g., a poker game).…”

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confidence: 76%

Red color in flags: A signal for competition

Zhang

Feng

Han

et al. 2017

Color Research & Application

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The color-in-context theory and ecological valence theory suggest that color preference depends on the context and ecological object that define the psychological meanings of colors. The present study was conducted to identify the preference for the color red in national flags across the world. We explored 192 national flags across the world and found that red was the most frequently used color. Through a systemic examination of symbolic meanings behind use of the color red in flags, it was also found that the color red was often attached with an aggressive connotation. In contrast, the flags of the selected international collaborative organizations did not appear to prefer red. These results support the hypothesis of "red flag preference" in realworld competitive contexts. Limitations and future research directions are also discussed. K E Y W O R D Scolor preference, competitive context, ecological object, red | I NT ROD UCTI ONHuman color preference has some consistency. Earlier research has calculated the average ranking of humans' favorite colors across cultures as follows: blue, red, green, violet, orange, and yellow. 1 This sequence depends on certain conditions, such as hue, saturation, lightness, contrasting color, and the object to which that the color attaches. [2][3][4][5] These studies have explored color preference and related factors, but have not provided any theoretical explanation for its basis.The ecological valence theory considers color preference as an adaptation. 6 Organisms approach preferred colors and avoid displeasing colors because these colors are attached to some typical ecological objects that are vital to the organism's reproductive success. For example, people might like the color blue because it is associated with clear skies and clean water and dislike brown because it is associated with feces and rotten food. Thus, the preference for blue will facilitate individuals to interact with blue ecological objects (e.g., clean water) and benefit from them.The color-in-context theory suggests that human reactions toward a given color depend on context, which determines the psychological meaning associated with the color. For instance, red is associated with aggression in competitive contexts (e.g., a sports contest) and associated with sex in affiliation contexts (e.g., dating). 7 Therefore, in competitive contexts, primates, 8,9 including human beings, 10 avoid red stimuli. However, in affiliative contexts, animals 11,12 and human beings 13,14 will approach red stimuli.The ecological valence theory and color-in-context theory are both evolutionarily informed theories, though they are characterized by different frameworks. The ecological valence theory emphasizes that typical associations between objects and colors determine color preference, whereas color-in-context theory additionally proposes that context moderates this effect as a result of contextual psychological meanings. Therefore, a discussion of color preference must consider both the ecological object and the context....

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“…Finally, we cannot exclude that the color of the spicy doses we used in this study may have contributed to the participant's choice. As a recent study showed, individuals who chose red in a lab-based experiment as a symbol color to represent themselves had higher testosterone levels and rated their color as having higher levels of certain characteristics, such as dominance and aggression, than did those participants who chose blue [8]. The method that was used in the present study to evaluate preference for spicy food in a single presentation could also be completed by multiple presentations or other methodologies (see [12,20]).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 97%