“…Each term represents increasing levels of stakeholder engagement in the research process, moving from participatory research, where stakeholders may contribute insights or feedback (Mackinson et al, 2011;Avilés Irahola et al, 2022), to knowledge co-production (Norström et al, 2020;Cazé et al, 2022;Jidda-Fada and Bennett, 2022), which entails a more equal partnership between researchers and stakeholders, and is culminating in transdisciplinary research. This most integrated form not only bridges academic disciplines, but also deeply involves all stakeholders in the research process from conception to execution (Steger et al, 2021;Franke et al, 2022;Klein, 2022;Archibald et al, 2023;Reed et al, 2023;Descalzi et al, 2024). These distinctions align with Arnstein's "ladder of participation, " highlighting the depth and breadth of engagement critical for addressing complex ocean governance challenges (Arnstein, 1969).…”