Composites containing resins and carbon nano-onions as efficient porous carbon materials for supercapacitors

Abstract

Herein, we report the functionalization of carbon nano-onions (CNOs) with the hydroxyaryl group and subsequent modifications with resins: resorcinol–formaldehyde using porogenic Pluronic F-127, resorcinol–formaldehyde-melamine, benzoxazine made of bisphenol A and triethylenetetramine, and calix[4]resorcinarene-derived using F-127. Following the direct carbonization, extensive physicochemical analysis was carried out, including Fourier transform infrared, Raman and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and adsorption–desorption of N2. The addition of CNO to the materials significantly increases the total pore volume (up to 0.932 cm3 g−1 for carbonized resorcinol–formaldehyde resin and CNO (RF-CNO-C) and 1.242 cm3 g−1 for carbonized resorcinol–formaldehyde-melamine resin and CNO (RFM-CNO-C)), with mesopores dominating. However, the synthesized materials have poorly ordered domains with some structural disturbance; the RFM-CNO-C composite shows a more ordered structure with amorphous and semi-crystalline regions. Subsequently, cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic charge–discharge method studied the electrochemical properties of all materials. The influence of resins' compositions, CNO content, and amount of N atoms in carbonaceous skeleton on the electrochemical performance was studied. In all cases, adding CNO to the material improves its electrochemical properties. The carbon material derived from CNO, resorcinol and melamine (RFM-CNO-C) showed the highest specific capacitance of 160 F g−1 at a current density of 2 A g−1, which is stable after 3000 cycles. The RFM-CNO-C electrode retains approximately 97% of its initial capacitive efficiency. The electrochemical performance of the RFM-CNO-C electrode results from the hierarchical porosity's stability and the presence of nitrogen atoms in the skeleton. This material is an optimal solution for supercapacitor devices.

Rational design of carbon nanocomposites with hierarchical porosity: a strategy to improve capacitive energy storage performance

“…7 Moreover, combining faradaic and non-faradaic processes in SCs can achieve higher energy and power density while maintaining long-term electrochemical stability. Our studies show that using CNOs during the synthesis of macromolecular systems may organize the organic framework of oligomers, 8 polymers 9,10 or CTFs 5 and alter the uniform distribution of pores and pore sizes (micropores (<2 nm), mesopores (2–50 nm) and macropores (>50 nm)) within the materials. Additionally, the combination of two components also guarantees an increase in the total porosity of the material, which is critical when using them as electrodes in SCs.…”

Sputtered vanadium carbon nitride (VCN) thin films: a potential electrode for supercapacitors

“…Increasing demands for portable electronics and the excessive consumption of non-renewable energy have prompted scientists to explore new energy storage devices that offer high power as well as energy density [1][2][3][4]. A supercapacitor (SC) has gained prominence in the area of energy storage as a result of its benefits, including fast rechargeability, extended cycle life, environmentally friendly nature, and high energy densities [5][6][7].…”

High-Performance Zinc-Ion Hybrid Supercapacitor from Guilin Sanhua Liquor Lees-Derived Carbon Materials

“…4−6 To that end, supercapacitors have been widely studied because they exhibit high power densities and good cycling performance, 7,8 are safe to operate, and have low environmental impact. 9,10 These attributes represent distinct advantages that promote their utilization. 11−13 However, supercapacitors exhibit unsuitable low energy densities.…”

“…Green energy utilization, storage, and conversion, which are closely related to sustainable societal development and play key roles in the overall energy balance, − require the development of efficient energy storage and conversion technologies. − To that end, supercapacitors have been widely studied because they exhibit high power densities and good cycling performance, , are safe to operate, and have low environmental impact. , These attributes represent distinct advantages that promote their utilization. − However, supercapacitors exhibit unsuitable low energy densities. Compared to lithium-ion batteries as a competing energy-storage technology, supercapacitors have two main disadvantages: − (1) low energy densities (≤15 Wh kg –1 ), equivalent to approximately 5% of that exhibited by typical lithium-ion batteries, and (2) high costs, i.e., approximately 20 times more expensive per unit energy density than lithium-ion batteries.…”