Comprehensive analysis of compatible natural fibre as sacrificial porogen template for tailored ceramic 3D bioproducts destined for hard tissue reconstruction

Preliminary Studies on Graphene-Reinforced 3D Products Obtained by the One-Stage Sacrificial Template Method for Bone Reconstruction Applications

“…The fabrication of the reinforced bioceramic-based 3D products starts with the CaP powder synthesis. This step is achieved based on the conversion of dolomitic marble through an already established, facile, and completely reproducible route, as previously reported [ 8 , 16 , 25 ]. Briefly, the process is constituted by the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate into calcium oxide (CaO) at 1300 °C/6 h, and the further hydration for calcium hydroxide powder formation (Ca(OH) 2 ), followed by chemical treatment with phosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4 , 85%, Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) at stoichiometric ratios—200 mL distilled water, 10 g of Ca(OH) 2 , and 5.5 mL of H 3 PO 4 (magnetic stirring for 2 h at 25 °C, acid addition rate of 1 mL/min).…”

“…As an alternative, bone synthetic grafts/scaffolds based on biocompatible materials are developed. [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ].…”

“…One way to address this aspect is to design scaffold architectures with large pores/channels by mixing ceramic materials with volatile materials, polymeric porogens [ 7 ], or natural fibers [ 23 , 24 ]. The compatible-use of Luffa fibers as porous template and its beneficial influence on the structure and phase composition of the ceramic matrix prior- and post-sintering, along with the influence of compressing force on the existence and importance of a secondary micro-porosity induced on internal channel surfaces, were recently reported and thoroughly discussed [ 8 , 25 ]. It was concluded that the use of vegetal fibers allows for the development of a vascular-like network through which the oxygen and nutrients transport—crucial for cell viability [ 26 ]—is warranted.…”

“…In natural bone tissue, these functions are provided by a highly branched system of larger blood vessels, which is subdivided into small capillaries [ 7 ]. The obtained porous structures with interconnected channels are a result of fibers calcination, also known as the ‘sacrificial template/porogen method’, and the micro-porosity is a consequence of temperature and sintering duration [ 8 , 25 ].…”

“…This way the chemical processing routes or the use of polymeric binder materials was avoided. The ceramic matrix synthesis will follow the aforementioned reproducible technology [ 16 , 20 ] and the porous configuration will be generated through the sacrificial template method [ 8 , 25 ]. Given the well-known inter-play between all mentioned aspects, several key-points related to the tailored material and 3D structures characteristics will be clarified in this work: (i) the optimum graphene nanoplatelets amount for an adequate morphological, compositional, and mechanical properties; (ii) the graphene distribution and incorporation level within the ceramic matrix; and (iii) the influence of high sintering temperature on the mixed natural templates and graphene materials for scaffolding processing.…”