Concepts of strict and absolute liability and the ranking of liability in terms of relative exposure to risk

Abstract

In this study theories which perceive the law's main goal to be instrumental in wealth creation, in the sense that legal rules should be formulated so as to be conducive to efficiency (and hence increase the wealth of a society), will be contrasted with perceptions of law as the continuous balance between political choices whose purpose is to advance justice, including distributive justice, as equality. These values are recognized, not as prudential or utilitarian, but as categorical. An apparent characteristic of doctrines which perceive the role of law as enhancing wealth in that they necessarily accept, as given, the contemporary values of distributive justice. In addition to this Panglossian quality, they have also raised doubts regarding welfare theories of social cost, “externalities” which provide the bedrock foundation of emerging theories of liability for harms due to scientific and technological innovations. These critics of social cost theories question the attribution of causation, and thus of costs, as a matter of logical or social necessity to any enterprise or conduct. Their question is “what is a cost of what activity?” This has been paraphrased, for example by Calabresi, as: “Is a pedestrian-auto accident to be attributed to driving or walking?” The welfare economists, in opposition to this relativism, argue that protean “transaction costs”, or “information costs” justify intervention in the name of amelioration. In this way the legislatures and the judges are called upon to intervene in the name of that same efficiency which was also standard to the conservative opponents of strict and absolute liability.

Self-Spreading Biotechnology and International Law

“…The currently most advanced research in the field of engineered gene drives aims to suppress populations of mosquito species that transmit malaria to humans. 10 Since gene drives create a vertical spread by increasing the rate of their transmission to subsequent generations, it usually takes several generations for the drive construct to become prevalent in a population. In contrast, horizontal self-spreading techniques aim for a spread within the same gen eration of organisms.…”

“…9 In eukaryotes (i.e. organisms whose cells possess a complex structure including a membrane-enclosed nucleus 10 ), DNA is organized in sets of chromosomes, which are compact packages of long, thread-like DNA strands and associated proteins. 11 Most eukaryotes possess two copies of each chromosome, one of which is inherited from each parent.…”

“…Firstly, personal injury denotes bodily or mental injury to a human person or any invasion of a personal right. 10 Such injury may be caused by direct interaction between the LMO and an individual, for instance by (intentional or unintentional) ingestion, or by stinging or biting by insects. This includes the infection of humans with a genetically modified virus.…”

Die Staatenhaftung im Völkerrecht

“…759 Dies würde zu einer ungerechtfertigten Bereicherung des Betreibers führen, der zugleich die wirtschaftlichen Vorteile aus der schadensauslösenden Aktivität zieht. 760 Der Grundsatz der ungerechtfertigten Bereicherung wiederum ist in vielen nationalen Rechtsordnungen verankert 761 und stützt damit ein weites Verständnis der Kostenzurechnung nach dem Verursachergrundsatz. In diesem Sinne spricht auch Prinzip 16 der Rio Deklaration allgemein von "Umweltkosten" und "Kosten der Verschmutzung".…”

“…770 Darüber 775 In diesem Sinne stützt der Grundsatz der ungerechtfertigten Bereicherung auch auf zwischenstaatlicher Ebene ein weites Verständnis des Verursachergrundsatzes, 776 denn "the creation of risk involves an expropriation of equal rights of amenities and, in the international arena, of equality and sovereign autonomy." 777 Außerdem trifft Staaten, wie gezeigt, die Pflicht, gefährliche Aktivitäten in ihrem Hoheitsgebiet oder unter ihrer Hoheitsgewalt zu regulieren und zu kontrollieren, die möglicherweise grenzüberschreitende Schäden zur Folge haben. Denklogisch sollte der zur Prävention verpflichtete Staat auch auf Kompensationsseite eine zentrale Rolle spielen.…”