Conditions for the use of verbal associations.

Cofer, Charles N.

doi:10.1037/h0024713

Cited by 94 publications

(56 citation statements)

References 18 publications

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“…A growing number of recent studies have demonstrated, however, that memory can also be indexed by facilitated performance on tests that do not require intentional recollection, such as word completion (e.g., Graf, Squire, & Mandler, 1984;Warrington & Weiskrantz, 1968, 1974, free association (e.g., Shimamura & Squire, 1984;Storms, 1958), word identification (e.g., Clarke & Morton, 1983;Jacoby & Dallas, 1981), and lexical decision (e.g., Meyer & Schvaneveldt, 1971;Scarborough, Gerard, & Cortese, 1979). The latter facilitations are generally known as directpriming effeets (e.g., Cofer, 1967). The descriptive terms implicit and explicithave been used to distinguish between the effects of memory episodes that are revealed by performance on priming tests on the one hand and by performance on recall and recognition tests on the other hand (Graf & Schacter, 1985;Schacter & Graf, 1986).…”

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confidence: 99%

Completion norms for 40 three-letter word stems

Graf

Williams

1987

Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers

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This is a report of the completion responses for 40 three-letter word stems (e.g., ABO) produced by 100 undergraduate students at the University of California at San Diego. The report includes a list of the different words that were written as stem completions, their frequency of occurrence as completions, and their frequency of occurrence in English according to published norms. This list of materials is useful for the construction of completion tests for future investigations of direct priming phenomena, and it may provide an important covariate in the analysis of performance on completion tests. Preliminary analyses of the results reveal three primary factors that deterine overall performance on a stem-completion test: word frequency, word length, and meanmgs per word. Analyses of the completions produced for each individual word stem, however, reveal that usually only one of these factors makes a significant contribution to performance.Traditionally, memory research has focused on performance under conditions that require subjects to recollect previously studied items in an intentional manner. These conditions are illustrated by tests, such as recall and recognition, for which subjects are instructed to remember items that were studied in a specific prior episode. A growing number of recent studies have demonstrated, however, that memory can also be indexed by facilitated performance on tests that do not require intentional recollection, such as word completion (e

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confidence: 99%

Completion norms for 40 three-letter word stems

Graf

Williams

1987

Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers

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“…This facilitation of test performance has been labeled repetition or direct priming (cf. Cofer, 1967), and it occurs without deliberate intent to recollect the past episode. Graf and Schacter (1985) have used the descriptive terms explicit and implicit to describe the forms of memory involved in recall/recognition and priming performance, respectively.…”

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Implicit memory and test awareness.

Bowers¹,

Schacter²

1990

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cogni

258

265

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In three experiments we examined whether normal subjects can perform an implicit test without becoming aware that the test items were previously encountered in the study phase of the experiment. Experiment 1 assessed single word priming with the stem completion task, and subjects who reported awareness/unawareness that the test items were previously encoded in the study task showed equivalent priming. Experiments 2a-c and 3 assessed associative priming with the stem completion task, and in this case, only subjects who were aware that the test items were previously encountered showed associative priming effects. These findings suggest that single word priming and associative priming reflect different memory processes because the former and not the latter effect can be observed in unaware subjects.

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“…If we look at the word-association test employed in that study as a repeated test of implicit conceptual memory (Roediger, 1990), one can conceive that at least some of the responses to the homograph organ following piano are associates to piano that occurred either explicitly (the response) or implicitly (other words that came to mind when piano was presented). It is a well-established finding that explicit prestudy of potential associates can lead to their production as responses in a word-association task (see Cofer, 1967, for a review of what he labeled direct priming). If an implicit form of direct priming occurs in this case, then on second occurrence, when organ is preceded by liver, there might be competition between associations to liver and organ and the earlier associations to piano and organ.…”

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confidence: 99%

The activation—selection model of meaning: Explaining why the son comes out after the sun

2007

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1986Prior to the late 1980s, research on the semantic ambiguity of single words had focused on the process of lexical access. Although various researchers favored different forms of access (exhaustive, context-dependent, ordered; see Simpson, 1984, for a review), the common tendency was to treat each occurrence of an ambiguous word as an independent event. A more recent trend in the ambiguity processing literature has been to examine the effect of the repetition of an ambiguous word in situations in which the appropriate meaning of the ambiguous word varies across occurrences. Changing the contextually appropriate meaning of a homograph across trials in a task can result in large decrements in performance, such as when an individual is required to decide if seal is related to walrus after earlier deciding that seal is related to glue. Maintaining the same meaning context generally facilitates performance, for example, deciding that seal is related to walrus shows a benefit if earlier the participant had decided that seal is related to dolphin (for reviews of this literature see Gorfein, 2001a;Simpson & Kang, 1994). Although Simpson and Kang (1994) have argued that in normal discourse, words are often repeated and therefore the long-term effects of processing each occurrence of an ambiguous word need to be understood, surprisingly little theoretical work has addressed the issue.Simpson and Kellas (1989) reported that once a homograph had been used as a prime for a word related to one of its less common meanings (e.g., bank as a prime for river), a target word related to the dominant meaning of the homograph (e.g., bank followed by money) showed a prolonged naming time in comparison with a neutral baseline, even after a lag of 12 intervening trials. Simpson and Kang (1994) concluded that "Processing one meaning of a homograph and responding to that meaning results in the active and specific inhibition of competing meanings" (p. 376, italics added), thus extending the idea of transient suppression of the nonselected meaning of an ambiguous word to a longer term inhibitory process that endures over a period of time. From a theoretical perspective, Simpson and Kang (1994) suggested that the observed decrement is a form of negative priming (see, e.g., Tipper, 1985), but did not present a specific model. The activation-selection model (ASM) of determining the meaning of an ambiguous word is unique in that it is able to account for the long-term effects of meaning selection without an explicit mechanism for suppressing the representation of the nonselected meaning. The model assumes that a meaning is selected when a threshold number of attributes associated with that particular meaning are activated. When a meaning is selected, the ASM assumes that the weights of the attributes that are associated with the chosen meaning are increased. This two-phase process (transient activation followed by long-term weight changes) provides a mechanism by which meaning selection at one time can affect meaning selection at a much late...

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Conditions for the use of verbal associations.

Cited by 94 publications

References 18 publications

Completion norms for 40 three-letter word stems

Completion norms for 40 three-letter word stems

Implicit memory and test awareness.

The activation—selection model of meaning: Explaining why the son comes out after the sun

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