Confounding and Negative Control Methods in Observational Study of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Effectiveness: A Nationwide, Population-Based Danish Health Registry Study

Abstract

Background Observational studies of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine effectiveness are prone to confounding, which can be illustrated using negative control methods. Methods Nationwide population-based cohort study including two cohorts of Danish residents 60–90 years of age matched 1:1 on age and sex: A vaccinated and a non-vaccinated cohort, including 61052 SARS-CoV-2 vaccinated individuals between 1 March and 1 July 2021 and 61052 individuals not vaccinated preceding 1 July 2021. From these two cohorts, we constructed negative control cohorts of individuals diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2 infection or acute myocardial infarction, stroke, cancer, low energy fracture, or head-trauma. Outcomes were SARS-CoV-2 infection, negative control outcomes (eg, mammography, prostate biopsy, operation for cataract, malignant melanoma, examination of eye and ear), and death. We used Cox regression to calculate adjusted incidence and mortality rate ratios (aIRR and aMRR). Results Risks of SARS-CoV2 infection and all negative control outcomes were elevated in the vaccinated population, ranging from an aIRR of 1.15 (95% CI: 1.09–1.21) for eye examinations to 3.05 (95% CI: 2.24–4.14) for malignant melanoma. Conversely, the risk of death in the SARS-CoV-2 infected cohort and in all negative control cohorts was lower in vaccinated individuals, ranging from an aMRR of 0.23 (95% CI: 0.19–0.26) after SARS-CoV-2 infection to 0.50 (95% CI: 0.37–0.67) after stroke. Conclusion Our findings indicate that observational studies of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine effectiveness may be subject to substantial confounding. Therefore, randomized trials are essential to establish vaccine efficacy after the emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants and the rollout of multiple booster vaccines.