Congruence of self and ideal self in relation to personality adjustment.

Abstract

THE concept of self has become a stimulus for a great deal of research in recent years. However, a theory is still lacking which adequately explains the processes by which changes in the self occur. Festinger's dissonance theory seems to offer a potential explanation of self-changes, although, in its present form, dissonance theory may be thought of as dealing primarily with changes in attitudes toward social objects other than the self.lThe basic assumptions of dissonance theory are that individuals tend to maintain an internal consistency among cognitions and that behavior tends to be consistent with existing cognitions. The literature is replete with evidence that these assumptions are met in the phenomenon of self-attitudes. Previous studies reveal a tendency for consistency among self-attitudes and a similar tendency for consistency between self-attitudes and relevant behavior.2 Therefore, on this level of reasoning, it may be concluded that the hypothesis of dissonance theory regarding changes in social attitudes may be Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson, 1957 ). 2 R. D. Cartwright, "Effects of Psychotherapy on Self-Consistency," J0urnu.l of Counselling Psychology, 4:15-22 (1957); M . Deutsch and L. Soloman, "Reactions to Evaluations by Others as Influenced by Self-Evaluation,'' Socwmetry, 22: 93-112 (1959); M. Engel, "The Stability ," J o u d of Educational Psychobgy, 50:93-104 (1.959); P. H. Mussen and L. W. Porter, "Personal 359 360 THE SOCIOLOGICAL Q U A R T E R L Y applied to changes in self-attitudes. Furthermore, Bergin reports success in an empirical test of the application of Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory to self-attitudes in a study of the effects of dissonant communications upon changes in self-referring attit u d e~.~Dissonance may be aroused in ways other than exposure to dissonant communications ( e.g., following decisions, forced compliance, and social disagreement). This paper reports the findings of a study of the reduction of dissonance resulting from forced compliance and attempted forced compliance. Specifically, the study attempts to determine the extent to which dissonance theory predicts change in attitude toward self as a communicator when monetary rewards are offered for making a one-minute extemporaneous speech.Forced compliance may be brought about through the exertion of threat of punishment for noncompliance or through the offer of a reward for compliance. If the inducement is accepted, a dissonant relation is established if the knowledge of the overt behavior is inconsistent with other existing cognitive elements. (Dissonance should not develop if the overt behavior is consistent with other cognitive elements.) If the offer of reward or threat of punishment is not sufficient to elicit contrary behavior, "the elements corresponding to his opinion and beliefs will be consonant with the cognitive elements corresponding to his overt behavior; but the latter will be dissonant with the knowledge of the reward he has not obtained ...

Age differences in life satisfaction as a function of discrepancy between real and ideal self concepts

“…per sc, may be a less important determinant of life satisfaction than the discrepancy between real and ideal self concepts and that this discrepancy may account for the reported age differences. Hanton, Hofstaetter and O'Connor (1954) found a high positive correlation between measures of adjustment and congruence between real and ideal self. Chodorkoff (1954) reported that well adjusted subjects showed a high correspondence between perceived and real self.…”

Self concept and defensive behavior in the maladjusted.

“…In general, the investigations thus far have dealt with the nature of the self-structure in subjects who are anxious and aware of their maladjustment. Maladjustment in these studies has been denned by extreme scores on some measure of maladjustment (2,3,6,9) or by voluntary requests for assistance in the solution of personal problems (4,8,13). If, as suggested by Hogan (10), defensive behavior reduces the awareness of threat, then maladjusted subjects who have developed defense patterns should no longer admit incongruity between perceived experience and their self concepts.…”

Gender Differences in Sex‐Risk Behaviors, Economic Livelihood, and Self‐Concept Among Drug Injectors and Crack Smokers

“…The MSGO assesses perceived discrepancies between how one sees oneself and one's goals (or “ideal self”) and discrepancies between how one sees oneself and how the individual feels others see him or her. A number of studies have found that discrepancies between these self‐concept variables are associated with maladjustment 47–52 . Through testing both clinical and nonclinical populations, the instrument was standardized to produce an overall measure of adjustment, or self‐concept, and a number of factors related to self‐concept, including anxiety, depression, and a measure of validity.…”