“…During these few decades, arguably the most significant forces shaping the development of higher education have been massification, accountability, governance, internationalisation, rankings and the emergence of world-class universities (Park, 2018; Shin and Hartman, 2009). These have created both opportunities and threats for developed and developing higher education systems alike, by exposing them to external pressure at the same time that markets are opened up to attract foreign talent and expertise to improve the quality of the education offered, as well as the opportunity to harness higher education as a source of revenue and employment (Knight, 2013; Manning et al , 2019). There has also been contention from without and within the higher education institutions (HEIs), resulting from the competing interests of the institutions and the societies in which they are situated (Schartner and Cho, 2017).…”