Continued effects of prenatal cocaine use: Preschool development

Abstract

The relationship between prenatal cocaine use and preschooler's physical and cognitive development and behavioral characteristics was examined, controlling for other influences on child development. On average, children were 38.5 months old, women were 29.4 years old, had 12.3 years of education, and 47% were African American. During the first trimester, 18% of the women were frequent cocaine users (≥ 1 line/day). First trimester cocaine exposure predicted decreased head circumference at 3 years and lower scores on the short-term memory subscale of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS) [74]. There was no significant relationship between prenatal cocaine use and the other SBIS scales. First trimester cocaine use also predicted more total, internalizing, and externalizing behavior problems on the Child Behavior Checklist [3] and higher scores on the fussy/difficult scale of the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire [6]. Children who were exposed to cocaine throughout pregnancy had more behavior problems and were more fussy compared to children of women who never used cocaine prenatally. A repeated measures analysis showed that children of first trimester cocaine users became more fussy over time. These detrimental effects on growth and behavior are consistent with other reports in the literature and with the hypothesis that prenatal cocaine exposure affects development through changes in neurotransmitter systems.

Effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on adolescent development

“…We have found persistent associations between PCE and child temperament and behavior problems at 1, 3, 7, and 10 years of age (Richardson et al, 2008(Richardson et al, , 2009, which is consistent with reviews suggesting that the behavior domain is most likely to be affected (Ackerman et al, 2010;Behnke et al, 2013;Buckingham-Howes et al, 2013). Others have also reported that PCE is associated with child or adolescent behavior problems, particularly externalizing behaviors such as aggression and delinquency (Bada et al, , 2012Bennett et al, 2007Bennett et al, , 2013DelaneyBlack et al, 2000;Fisher et al, 2011;McLaughlin et al, 2011;Minnes et al, 2010;Nordstrom Bailey et al, 2005;Sood et al, 2005;Whitaker et al, 2011).…”

“…As we have reported at earlier ages (Richardson et al, 2008(Richardson et al, , 2009, offspring with PCE were significantly smaller at age 15 even after adjusting for factors such as gender, pubertal development, and maternal height. Each of the growth measures (weight, height, and head circumference) was affected by first trimester exposure.…”

“…We found a significant association between PCE and short-term memory (Richardson et al, 2009), and other researchers have reported deficits in specific areas such as verbal reasoning/memory (Bennett et al, 2002), executive function , cognitive processing/learning (Bridgett et al, 2011;Mayes et al, 2005Mayes et al, , 2007, visual spatial/math skills (Singer et al, , 2008, visual motor integration Schroder et al, 2004), and attention, inhibitory control, and impulsivity (Accornero et al, 2007;Bandstra et al, 2001;Bendersky et al, 2003;Carmody et al, 2011;Noland et al, 2005;Rose-Jacobs et al, 2009). However, there are also reports that show no negative effects of PCE on specific areas of cognition (Betancourt et al, 2011;Eyler et al, 2009;Hurt et al, 2009;Li et al, 2009;, and most groups, including ours, do not find a relation between PCE and global cognitive development (Accornero et al, 2007;Bandstra et al, 2002;Frank et al, 2005;Hurt et al, 1997Hurt et al, , 2001Messinger et al, 2004;Morrow et al, 2004Morrow et al, , 2006Singer et al, 2004).…”

“…We found significant associations between PCE and growth deficits at follow-ups through 10 years of age (Richardson et al, 1999(Richardson et al, , 2008(Richardson et al, , 2009. Some other studies have also reported that PCE has a detrimental effect on childhood growth (Covington et al, 2002;Minnes et al, 2006;Rivkin et al, 2008;Shankaran et al, 2011).…”

Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure and Childhood Behavior Problems at 3 and 5 Years of Age

“…18 In studies of behavioral problems using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), 19 cocaine exposure has been associated with externalizing and or internalizing behavior problems in children as young 3 years 20,21 through school age, 20,22,23 with specific behavioral syndromes of attention problems at ages 4, 24 6, 22 and 9 to 11 25 years, aggressive behavior at 3 21 and 7 22 years, anxiety/depression at 3 21 and 8 23 years, and withdrawn behavior at 3 years. 21 To the best of my knowledge, we present the first longitudinal study of behavioral problems associated with prenatal MA exposure adjusted for prenatal exposure to other drugs and environmental risk. 20,24,26 Similar to studies of cocaine exposure, the CBCL was first administered at 3 years of age, then at 5 years.…”