Continuous traumatic stress: Expanding the lexicon of traumatic stress.

Eagle, Gillian; Kaminer, Debra

doi:10.1037/a0032485

Cited by 180 publications

(118 citation statements)

References 39 publications

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“…The effects of exposure to a violent event cannot always be circumscribed to a specific incident, but at times must be considered within the larger context in which the incident occurred. The concept of continuous traumatic stress represents situations in which danger is pervasive and recurrent and has been identified as a contributor to compromised mental health and functioning (Eagle & Kaminer, ). Furthering our understanding of mental health reactions following exposure to CV—which is complicated by profound contextual variables such as racial conflict, poverty, and lack of educational opportunity—is warranted in high crime urban centers and communities (Gapen et al., ; Ross & Mirowsky, ).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Exposure to Violence During Ferguson Protests: Mental Health Effects for Law Enforcement and Community Members

Galovski

Peterson

Beagley

et al. 2016

Journal of Traumatic Stress

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There is little information available on the mental health effects of exposure to shared community violence such as the August 2014 violence that occurred in Ferguson, Missouri. This study sought to examine the relationship between proximity to community violence and mental health in both community members and police officers. We recruited 565 adults (community, n = 304, and police, n = 261) exposed to the violence in Ferguson to complete measures of proximity to violence, posttraumatic stress, depression, and anger. Using structural equation modeling, we assessed aspects of proximity to violence-connectedness, direct exposure, fear from exposure, media exposure, reactions to media, and life interruption-as correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, depression, and anger. The final model yielded (n = 432), χ(2) (d = 12) = 7.4, p = .830; comparative fit index = 1.0, root mean square error of approximation = 0 [0, .04]. All aspects of proximity except direct exposure were associated with mental health outcomes. There was no moderation as a function of community versus police. Race moderated the relationship between life interruptions and negative outcomes; interruption was related to distress for White, but not Black community members. Based on group comparisons, community members reported more symptoms of PTSD and depression than law enforcement (ηp (2) = .06 and .02, respectively). Black community members reported more PTSD and depression than White community members (ηp (2) = .05 and .02, respectively). Overall, distress was high, and mental health interventions are likely indicated for some individuals exposed to the Ferguson events.

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mentioning

confidence: 99%

Exposure to Violence During Ferguson Protests: Mental Health Effects for Law Enforcement and Community Members

Galovski

Peterson

Beagley

et al. 2016

Journal of Traumatic Stress

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“…Working in South Africa during the last stages of apartheid, Straker et al [25] were the first to think about the impact of living in a situation of ongoing trauma, and although there has not been extensive exploration of the concept [26], there is an emerging literature looking at continuous stress in other countries [26–28]. …”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Eagle and Kaminer [26] describe four ways in which continuous stress syndrome is different from PTSD: (1) the dangerous environment, (2) the fact that trauma is current and anticipated (3) that discriminating between real and perceived danger is complex, and (4) the absence of external protective systems (p. 89).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Chronic pain as a human rights issue: setting an agenda for preventative action

Frenkel

Swartz

2017

Global Health Action

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Background: Historically, chronic pain has been viewed primarily as a medical issue, and research has been focused on the individual and predominantly on pain sufferers in high-income countries. Objectives: This article argues the need for a broader understanding of the context of chronic pain and its complex aetiologies and maintenance. It is suggested that the interaction between chronic pain and social context has been inadequately explored. Methods: A single case study is used of a man living in a violent urban environment in South Africa accessing a pain clinic at a tertiary hospital. Following the case-study approach, as used in the chronic traumatic stress field by Kaminer et al., the case material is utilised to develop an argument for a new research agenda. Results: Analysis of the case material demonstrates the complex interplay between bodily and psychological experiences, with chronic pain being contextually maintained and exacerbated by very difficult life circumstances, ongoing violence, and marginalisation. Conclusions: It is suggested that a research agenda be developed which explores the links between chronic pain and ongoing chronic traumatisation in contexts of continuous violence, oppression, and disempowerment – common features of much of the contemporary majority world.

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“…In conflict areas such as low-income communities in South Africa, where residents are constantly exposed to severe forms of community violence (Eagle & Kaminer, 2013), factors beyond social acknowledgment that can potentially influence changes in PTSD and appetitive aggression must be acknowledged, as we address in this study. For example, post-treatment traumatic events that occur in between two measuring points in longitudinal assessments may be associated with changes in PTSD symptoms, potentially reinforcing the trauma memory and decreasing the likelihood of overall improvement.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Associations between societal disapproval and changes in symptoms of PTSD and appetitive aggression following treatment among high-risk South African males

Sommer

Hinsberger

Holtzhausen

et al. 2017

European Journal of Psychotraumatology

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Background: In violent communities, social rejection as a person with victim–offender attributes is associated with more intense symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and a higher propensity towards violence, i.e. appetitive aggression. Successful community reintegration encompassing adequate social acknowledgment of individuals with both a history of violence exposure and perpetration may be necessary to enhance the treatment effects of interventions addressing PTSD and aggression. Objective: In this study, the effects of treatment and post-treatment traumatic events, violent offenses, and social acknowledgment (with sub-dimensions of general disapproval, family disapproval, and recognition as a person with both a history of violence exposure and commission) on changes in PTSD symptom severity and appetitive aggression from baseline to 8-month follow-up were investigated. Method: Data were collected from 54 males recruited through a Cape Town offender reintegration programme for an intervention study targeting trauma and aggression (n = 28 treatment; n = 26 wait-list). Changes in PTSD symptom severity after treatment were assessed with the PTSD Symptom Scale-Interview, changes in appetitive aggression with the Appetitive Aggression Scale (AAS), post-treatment traumatic events with an adapted version of the Child’s Exposure to Violence Checklist, offenses with an adapted checklist from the AAS, and social acknowledgment with an adapted form of the Social Acknowledgment Questionnaire. Results: Path analyses revealed negative relationships between ongoing societal disapproval and changes in PTSD symptom severity and appetitive aggression at 8-months, controlling for age. All other variables were non-significant, except for treatment, which was associated with PTSD symptom reduction. Conclusions: As a complementary strategy to effective psychotherapeutic treatment, increased social acknowledgment may contribute significantly to the alleviation of PTSD symptoms and appetitive aggression. Psychological interventions should, therefore, not neglect the impact of societal factors on treatment effects.

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Continuous traumatic stress: Expanding the lexicon of traumatic stress.

Cited by 180 publications

References 39 publications

Exposure to Violence During Ferguson Protests: Mental Health Effects for Law Enforcement and Community Members

Exposure to Violence During Ferguson Protests: Mental Health Effects for Law Enforcement and Community Members

Chronic pain as a human rights issue: setting an agenda for preventative action

Associations between societal disapproval and changes in symptoms of PTSD and appetitive aggression following treatment among high-risk South African males

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