The independent association between the indices of iron stores or administered intravenous iron, both of which vary over time, and survival in patients who are on maintenance hemodialysis (MHD) is not clear. It was hypothesized that the observed associations between moderately high levels of three iron markers (serum ferritin, iron, and iron saturation ratio) or administered intravenous iron and all-cause and cardiovascular death is due to the time-varying confounding effect of malnutrition-inflammation-cachexia syndrome (MICS). Time-dependent Cox regression models were examined using prospectively collected data of the 2-yr (July 2001 to June 2003) historical cohort of 58,058 MHD patients from virtually all DaVita dialysis clinics in the United States. After time-dependent and multivariate adjustment for case mix, administered intravenous iron and erythropoietin doses, and available surrogates of MICS, serum ferritin levels between 200 and 1200 ng/ml (reference 100 to 199 ng/ml), serum iron levels between 60 and 120 g/ml (reference 50 to 59 g/ml), and iron saturation ratio between 30 and 50% (reference 45 to 50%) were associated with the lowest all-cause and cardiovascular death risks. Compared with those who did not receive intravenous iron, administered intravenous iron up to 400 mg/mo was associated with improved survival, whereas doses >400 mg/mo tended to be associated with higher death rates. The association between serum ferritin levels >800 ng/ml and mortality in MHD patients seems to be due mostly to the confounding effects of MICS. I n patients who are on maintenance hemodialysis (MHD), markers of anemia, including low blood hemoglobin concentrations, are associated with poor clinical outcomes (1,2). Consequently, management of anemia by recombinant human erythropoietin (EPO) by increasing serum hemoglobin toward the target of 11.0 to 12.0 g/dl is reported consistently to improve outcome measures in MHD patients (3-6). However, much controversy exists with regard to the association between measures of iron stores or changes in these values by iron administration and clinical outcome in these individuals (7). Although in the pre-EPO era iron overload was a major cause of morbidity in MHD patients, its significance in the post-EPO era remains unclear. A recent observational study in 1283 MHD patients indicated that a low, rather than a high, baseline serum iron quartile was associated with increased mortality and hospitalization over 12 mo of observation (8). Even though quartile analysis enables us to uncover nonlinear relationships, large sample sizes with repeated measures are needed to compare the mortality predictability of smaller increments of iron markers. Moreover, the association between other iron markers and survival remains to be determined.Many observational studies have examined the association between a baseline laboratory value at the start of the cohort and the survival and ignored variations in clinical and laboratory measures over time. It is not clear whether longitudinal changes in...