Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)–Related Stress and Menstrual Changes

Anto-Ocrah, Martina; Valachovic, Tori; Chen, Michael; Tiffany, Kimberly; DeSplinter, Lindsey; Kaukeinen, Kimberly; Glantz, J. Christopher; Hollenbach, Stefanie J.

doi:10.1097/aog.0000000000005010

Cited by 12 publications

(12 citation statements)

References 37 publications

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“…12,17 In addition, it is important to take into account the possibility of psychological disorders, declining mental health, and increased stress in a portion of the population, factors involved in an increased risk of developing menstrual cycle changes. 18,19 Our results allow us to consider that there were no significant menstrual changes after having COVID-19 or COVID-19 vaccination in agreement with previous reports. 6,20,21 Small variations, mainly in cycle length and regularity-which have been noticed…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 92%

“…High level of education is also related to a lower proportion of reports of menstrual changes after having COVID‐19 and can be explained by the fact that more education leads to more access to reliable information about COVID‐19 and its effects 12,17 . In addition, it is important to take into account the possibility of psychological disorders, declining mental health, and increased stress in a portion of the population, factors involved in an increased risk of developing menstrual cycle changes 18,19 …”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Moreover, the changes in the cycle may be due not only to infection or vaccination with COVID‐19, but also to weight fluctuations—gain/loss, lifestyle changes, access to health care with exacerbation of other health conditions. Mental state caused by the pandemic, 18,19 which may also be more frequent in parts of society with difficult access to health care, would add weight fluctuations‐gain/loss and lifestyle changes,…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Association between COVID‐19 and vaccination on menstrual cycle

Marcelino,

Fim,

da Cunha Pereira

et al. 2023

Intl J Gynecology & Obste

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ObjectiveTo evaluate changes in the menstrual pattern of women of reproductive age infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) or vaccinated against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19).MethodsA cross‐sectional study at the University of Campinas, Brazil using Google questionnaire applied from December 2021 through February 2022, disseminated through snowball technique. Participants responded about characteristics of their menstrual cycle before the pandemic and before COVID‐19 vaccination, and then about characteristics of their cycle 3 months after infection with SARS‐CoV‐2 and 3 months after vaccination. Our primary outcome was a binary indicator of changes in the menstrual cycle. We used multivariate regression analysis to identify factors associated with menstrual changes.ResultsWe received 1012 completed questionnaires and 735 (72.7%) were from women aged between 20 and 39 years, 745 (73.6%) were White and 491 (48.6%) lived with a partner. A total of 419 (41.6%) of the women reported SARS‐CoV‐2 infection; however, only two of them were hospitalized, and 995 (98.8%) of women had at least one dose of COVID‐19 vaccine. About menstrual characteristics, 170 (41.3%) reported changes after having COVID‐19 and 294 (29.9%) after COVID‐19 vaccination, respectively. Few years of schooling, lower income, and non‐white ethnicity were related to higher reports of menstrual changes after COVID‐19. Menstrual changes after COVID‐19 vaccination were associated with not using contraception. Higher body mass index was associated with irregularities in cyclicity and bleeding days, after COVID‐19 and COVID‐19 vaccination, respectively.ConclusionOur results corroborated the stability of the menstrual cycle after having COVID‐19 or COVID‐19 vaccination; however, there is a potential relationship between menstrual changes and socioeconomic factors as well as contraceptive use.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 92%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

Association between COVID‐19 and vaccination on menstrual cycle

Marcelino,

Fim,

da Cunha Pereira

et al. 2023

Intl J Gynecology & Obste

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…Some studies have implicated cytokines (e.g., interleukin-6, interleukin-8, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha) as mediators of the in ammatory response to COVID-19, which can trigger a procoagulant state and may be a way to affect menstruation indirectly. The increased social distance, the surge in the number of infections and the economic losses during COVID-19 pandemic could cause severe stress, anxiety and depression [14] , which were thought to cause menstrual disturbances [6,[15][16][17] . There have even been studies suggesting that the high prevalence of menstrual cycle irregularities in the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic is not related to a COVID-19…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Analysis of Women's Menstrual Changes after COVID-19 Infection: a Descriptive Study

Han,

Jiang,

Yang

2023

Preprint

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Background: In December, 2019, a pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) emerged in Wuhan, China. Since December 2022, China has adjusted anti-epidemic policies and a large-scale COVID-19 infection has emerged. We aimed to explore the menstrual changes of women before and after infection with the COVID-19. Methods: This study was designed as a descriptive, cross-sectional study. We collected data from participants infected with COVID-19 from January 1, 2023 to March 1, 2023 by issuing electronic questionnaires. Women were invited to fill out the questionnaire about their menstrual characteristic after COVID-19 infection. Results: A total of 884 women with COVID-19 infections participated in the study. 662(74.9%) participants experienced changes in one or more of menstrual characteristics. Cycle length seemed to be the characteristic most likely to change (47.6%), followed by menstrual flow (41.7%), duration of menstrual periods (29.5%), degree of dysmenorrhea (29.0%) and intermenstrual bleeding (14.9%). The main clinical manifestations were menstruation delayed (26.3%), menstrual flow decreased (25.5%), dysmenorrhea relief (21.9%) and menstruation prolonged (21.0%). And we found new intermenstrual bleeding in 8.4% participants after COVID-19 infection. The menstrual change rate of the irregular menstrual group was significantly higher than that of the regular menstrual group (73.0% vs. 62.3%, P＜0.001). Conclusions: COVID-19 infection may cause menstrual changes in most women. It is important to be aware of the menstrual changes after COVID-19 infection and to inform women about this issue.

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“…10 However, systematic studies of the impact of COVID-19 on the female reproductive system are lacking. There are numerous reports on the effects of COVID-19 and its related stress on the female reproductive system and menstruation, [11][12][13][14][15][16] reporting that women with COVID-19 experience changes in menstrual volume and cycle. A common limitation of these reports was the lack of longitudinal data that could reflect the rise and fall of menstrual changes following COVID-19, because these studies only provided specific insight into the menstrual changes experienced by women at the onset of COVID-19 infection or subsequent lockdown.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Effect of COVID-19 on Menstruation and Lower Reproductive Tract Health

Li,

Bai,

Xiang

et al. 2023

IJWH

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Background: To evaluate the dynamically impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on the female reproductive system. Methods: An online survey was shared to women of reproductive age who had been infected with COVID-19 and recovered in China between January and March 2023. Results: In total, 610 women of childbearing age completed the menstrual component of the survey and 82.6% (n=504) women selfpurchased medications without hospitalization. 254 women were menstruating during COVID-19 infection. 66.9% of them reported changes in menstruation, including cycle length (64.7%), menstrual flow (72.4%), and duration (53%), compared to pre-COVID-19. COVID-19-related chest tightness (OR: 9.5; 95% CI: 1.9-46.3), COVID-19-related stress (OR: 18.4; 95% CI: 1.4-249.7), and COVID-19-related low mood (OR: 6.2; 95% CI: 1.4-28.2) were associated with these menstrual changes. However, over 73% of women who menstruated during and after COVID-19 regained their pre-infection menstrual cycle (73%), duration (79.6%), and flow (75.2%) during their first menstruation after COVID-19 recovery. Compared to pre-infection, 19.7% (n=124) women reported changes in lower reproductive tract during COVID-19, including volume and color of vaginal discharge, vulvar pruritus, and vaginitis. These changes were significantly increased in those with a history of pelvic inflammatory disease (OR: 12.1; 95% CI: 3.1-48.2), ovarian cysts (OR: 4.9; 95% CI: 1.2-19.4), and vaginitis (OR: 5.5; 95% CI: 2.1-14.4) prior to COVID-19. However, 52.4% reported that their lower reproductive tract health had returned to its pre-infection within the first month after recovery from COVID-19, while 73.5% reported a return to the pre-infection within 2 months. Conclusion: Changes in menstruation and lower reproductive tract associated with COVID-19 are transient. Menstruation and lower reproductive tract health will gradually return to pre-COVID-19 status within 2 months of recovery, which can help alleviate excessive concerns about the effects of COVID-19 on the reproductive system.

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Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)–Related Stress and Menstrual Changes

Cited by 12 publications

References 37 publications

Association between COVID‐19 and vaccination on menstrual cycle

Association between COVID‐19 and vaccination on menstrual cycle

Analysis of Women's Menstrual Changes after COVID-19 Infection: a Descriptive Study

Effect of COVID-19 on Menstruation and Lower Reproductive Tract Health

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