Cosmetics as a Feature of the Extended Human Phenotype: Modulation of the Perception of Biologically Important Facial Signals

Abstract

Research on the perception of faces has focused on the size, shape, and configuration of inherited features or the biological phenotype, and largely ignored the effects of adornment, or the extended phenotype. Research on the evolution of signaling has shown that animals frequently alter visual features, including color cues, to attract, intimidate or protect themselves from conspecifics. Humans engage in conscious manipulation of visual signals using cultural tools in real time rather than genetic changes over evolutionary time. Here, we investigate one tool, the use of color cosmetics. In two studies, we asked viewers to rate the same female faces with or without color cosmetics, and we varied the style of makeup from minimal (natural), to moderate (professional), to dramatic (glamorous). Each look provided increasing luminance contrast between the facial features and surrounding skin. Faces were shown for 250 ms or for unlimited inspection time, and subjects rated them for attractiveness, competence, likeability and trustworthiness. At 250 ms, cosmetics had significant positive effects on all outcomes. Length of inspection time did not change the effect for competence or attractiveness. However, with longer inspection time, the effect of cosmetics on likability and trust varied by specific makeup looks, indicating that cosmetics could impact automatic and deliberative judgments differently. The results suggest that cosmetics can create supernormal facial stimuli, and that one way they may do so is by exaggerating cues to sexual dimorphism. Our results provide evidence that judgments of facial trustworthiness and attractiveness are at least partially separable, that beauty has a significant positive effect on judgment of competence, a universal dimension of social cognition, but has a more nuanced effect on the other universal dimension of social warmth, and that the extended phenotype significantly influences perception of biologically important signals at first glance and at longer inspection.

Sex Differences in the Perceived Dominance and Prestige of Women With and Without Cosmetics

“…The association of positive qualities (such as prestige) with attractiveness (Dion et al, 1972) may be one reason for our findings, as we saw that men find women with cosmetics more attractive, which has also been shown in previous literature (e.g. Etcoff et al, 2011;Mulhern et al, 2003). In relation to the lack of perceived dominance, as men don't compete and aggress in the same manner as women (Björkqvist, 1994) men may have less likelihood of associating women with dominance generally.…”

“…These results suggest that cosmetics may function as an extended phenotype (Etcoff et al, 2011) whereby certain features and characteristics can be exaggerated to appear more attractive. In a recent non-human animal example, greater flamingos were found to secrete carotenoid-rich oils into their oil glands, which they spread over their wings to enhance their red coloration, much like cosmetics (Amat et al, 2011).…”

“…Studies report that women wearing cosmetics appear both more attractive and more competent (Etcoff et al, 2011). If competence is a measure of ability, then we would predict that women with cosmetics ought to be rated as prestigious rather than dominant.…”

Miscalibrations in judgements of attractiveness with cosmetics

“…In animal studies, supernormal attributes such as experimentally lengthened tails can increase mating success (Winquist & Lemon, 1994). Cosmetics probably function in humans in a similar fashion (Etcoff et al, 2011), and this may explain the discrepancy between men's actual preferences and their estimated preferences. Nonhuman animals have been shown to exaggerate colour cues or other visual features to increase their mating success, though these behaviours can cause the opposite sex to decipher what is a real or deceptive signal of mate value (Trivers, 1985).…”

“…Concordantly, women with greater facial asymmetries spend longer applying cosmetics (Korichi, Pell de Queral, & Gazano, 2011). It is therefore unsurprising that cosmetic practices have been shown to consistently increase attractiveness (Etcoff, Stock, Haley, Vickery, & House, 2011;Mulhern et al, 2003). Cosmetics, then, allow women to increase their facial attractiveness by modifying attributes that influence attractiveness in unadorned faces.…”