COVID-19 Long-Term Effects: Is There an Impact on the Simple Reaction Time and Alternative-Forced Choice on Recovered Patients?

Santoyo-Mora, Mauro; Villaseñor‐Mora, Carlos; Cardona-Torres, Luz M.; Nolasco, Juan José Martínez; Barranco-Gutiérrez, Alejandro I.; Padilla-Medina, José A.; Bravo-Sánchez, Micael Gerardo

doi:10.3390/brainsci12091258

Cited by 12 publications

(18 citation statements)

References 33 publications

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“…Likewise, in a study contrasting 109 post-COVID-19 patients against on 38 controls, those recovering from severe COVID-19 reportedly had poorer performance in tasks requiring high visual sensitivity and were affected by slower processing information speed, as a possible damage to visual or nervous system. By contrast, work performance of patients with mild/moderate COVID-19 was similar to never infected subjects in the latter study [ 9 ].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 84%

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Persistence of Symptoms 15 Months since COVID-19 Diagnosis: Prevalence, Risk Factors and Residual Work Ability

Sansone

Tassinari

Valentinotti³

et al. 2022

Life

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Background: A proportion of patients’ ailments may last after recovering from acute COVID-19, with episodic and systemic symptoms of unclear etiology potentially involving different organs. Study aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the persistence of symptoms 15 months since COVID-19 diagnosis in patients referring to the post-COVID-19 clinic in Trieste (north-eastern Italy). Methods: Two-hundred-forty-seven patients were medically examined between 8 December 2020–6 April 2021, after a median time of 49 days since first positive swab test for SARS-CoV-2. After a median time of 15 months since COVID-19 diagnosis, the same patients were contacted over the phone and investigated by standardized questionnaire collecting information on any persisting symptoms and work ability index (WAI). Four multivariable logistic regression models were fitted to investigate factors associated with persistence of any respiratory, neurological, dysautonomic, or psychiatric symptoms at first (median time 49 days since COVID-19 diagnosis) as well as second (median 15 months since COVID-19 diagnosis) follow up. A multiple linear regression was also employed to investigate factors associated with higher mean WAI, assessed only at second follow up. Additionally, factors associated with persistence of symptoms 200+ days since COVID-19 diagnosis between first and second follow-up were investigated by multivariable Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE). Results: At first follow up (median time of 49 days since COVID-19 diagnosis) symptoms more frequently reported were fatigue (80.2%), shortness of breath (69.6%), concentration deficit (44.9%), headache (44.9%), myalgia (44.1%), arthralgia (43.3%), and anosmia (42.1%). At second follow-up (median time of 15 months since COVID-19 diagnosis) 75% patients returned to their baseline status preceding COVID-19. At first follow up males were less likely to experience neurological (OR = 0.16; 95% CI: 0.08; 0.35) as well as psychiatric (OR = 0.43; 95% CI: 0.23; 0.80) symptoms as compared to females. At first follow up, the risk of neurological symptoms increased also linearly with age (OR = 1.04; 95% CI: 1.01; 1.08) and pre-existing depression was a major risk factor for persisting dysautonomic (aOR = 6.35; 95% CI: 2.01; 20.11) as well as psychiatric symptoms (omitted estimate). Consistently, at second follow up only females experience psychiatric symptoms, whereas males exhibited significantly higher mean WAI (RC = 0.50; 95% CI: 0.11; 0.88). Additionally, neurological symptoms at second follow up were more likely in patients with pre-existing comorbidities (OR = 4.31; 95% CI: 1.27; 14.7). Finally, persistence of symptoms lasting 200+ days since COVID-19 diagnosis increased linearly with age (OR = 1.03; 95% CI 1.01–1.05) and were more likely in patients affected by pre-existing depression (OR = 2.68; 95% CI 1.60; 4.49). Conclusions: Following a median time of 15 months since first positive swab test, 75% patients with symptoms returned to their baseline health status preceding COVID-19. Females had a significantly lower WAI and were more likely to experience psychiatric symptoms at second follow up (15 months since COVID-19 diagnosis). Furthermore, the risk of symptoms persisting 200+ days since COVID-19 diagnosis increased with history of depression, endorsing the hypothesis that long-COVID-19 symptoms may be at least partially explained by pre-existing psychological conditions. Patient rehabilitation and psychological support may therefore play a key role in caring patients with the so called long COVID-19 syndrome.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 84%

“…Reduced work ability and quality of life have also been reported in relation to persisting COVID-19 symptoms. [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Persistence of Symptoms 15 Months since COVID-19 Diagnosis: Prevalence, Risk Factors and Residual Work Ability

Sansone

Tassinari

Valentinotti³

et al. 2022

Life

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“…Although the neuropsychological profile indicates impairment in the executive domain, tests grouped under executive functions can also be considered to involve processing speed. Several previous studies have related slowness with illness severity [ 5 , 11 , 15 ]. Our results support this relationship.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…However, among non-ICU patients, the cognitive composite score did not differ between those who were hospitalized and those who were not [ 14 ]. In a similar study performed with a healthy control (HC) group, patients with severe PCC showed lower processing speed than those with mild-moderate PCC and healthy control participants [ 15 ]. In a Finnish study, both ICU and hospitalized patients underperformed patients treated at home in the total cognitive score at 6 months post-COVID.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

COVID-19 severity is related to poor executive function in people with post-COVID conditions

Ariza

Cano²,

Segura³

et al. 2023

J Neurol

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Patients with post-coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) conditions typically experience cognitive problems. Some studies have linked COVID-19 severity with long-term cognitive damage, while others did not observe such associations. This discrepancy can be attributed to methodological and sample variations. We aimed to clarify the relationship between COVID-19 severity and long-term cognitive outcomes and determine whether the initial symptomatology can predict long-term cognitive problems. Cognitive evaluations were performed on 109 healthy controls and 319 post-COVID individuals categorized into three groups according to the WHO clinical progression scale: severe-critical (n = 77), moderate-hospitalized (n = 73), and outpatients (n = 169). Principal component analysis was used to identify factors associated with symptoms in the acute-phase and cognitive domains. Analyses of variance and regression linear models were used to study intergroup differences and the relationship between initial symptomatology and long-term cognitive problems. The severe-critical group performed significantly worse than the control group in general cognition (Montreal Cognitive Assessment), executive function (Digit symbol, Trail Making Test B, phonetic fluency), and social cognition (Reading the Mind in the Eyes test). Five components of symptoms emerged from the principal component analysis: the “Neurologic/Pain/Dermatologic” “Digestive/Headache”, “Respiratory/Fever/Fatigue/Psychiatric” and “Smell/ Taste” components were predictors of Montreal Cognitive Assessment scores; the “Neurologic/Pain/Dermatologic” component predicted attention and working memory; the “Neurologic/Pain/Dermatologic” and “Respiratory/Fever/Fatigue/Psychiatric” components predicted verbal memory, and the “Respiratory/Fever/Fatigue/Psychiatric,” “Neurologic/Pain/Dermatologic,” and “Digestive/Headache” components predicted executive function. Patients with severe COVID-19 exhibited persistent deficits in executive function. Several initial symptoms were predictors of long-term sequelae, indicating the role of systemic inflammation and neuroinflammation in the acute-phase symptoms of COVID-19.” Study Registration: www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT05307549 and NCT05307575.

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“…The seven studies which have investigated the long-term effects of COVID infection (9 to 12 months) found a deterioration of cognitive performance in different cognitive domains, such as in overall cognition [ 91 ], memory [ 90 , 92 , 93 , 94 ], attention [ 95 , 96 ], executive functions [ 90 , 92 ] and visuospatial abilities [ 90 ].…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown Measures and COVID-19 Infection on Cognitive Functions: A Review in Healthy and Neurological Populations

Manfredini

Pisano

Incoccia

et al. 2023

IJERPH

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The COVID-19 pandemic severely affected people’s mental health all over the world. This review aims to present a comprehensive overview of the literature related to the effects of COVID-19 lockdown measures and COVID-19 infection on cognitive functioning in both healthy people and people with neurological conditions by considering only standardized tests. We performed a narrative review of the literature via two databases, PUBMED and SCOPUS, from December 2019 to December 2022. In total, 62 out of 1356 articles were selected and organized into three time periods: short-term (1–4 months), medium-term (5–8 months), and long-term (9–12 months), according to the time in which the tests were performed. Regardless of the time period, most studies showed a general worsening in cognitive performance in people with neurological conditions due to COVID-19 lockdown measures and in healthy individuals recovered from COVID-19 infection. Our review is the first to highlight the importance of considering standardized tests as reliable measures to quantify the presence of cognitive deficits due to COVID-19. Indeed, we believe that they provide an objective measure of the cognitive difficulties encountered in the different populations, while allowing clinicians to plan rehabilitation treatments that can be of great help to many patients who still, nowadays, experience post-COVID-19 symptoms.

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COVID-19 Long-Term Effects: Is There an Impact on the Simple Reaction Time and Alternative-Forced Choice on Recovered Patients?

Cited by 12 publications

References 33 publications

Persistence of Symptoms 15 Months since COVID-19 Diagnosis: Prevalence, Risk Factors and Residual Work Ability

Persistence of Symptoms 15 Months since COVID-19 Diagnosis: Prevalence, Risk Factors and Residual Work Ability

COVID-19 severity is related to poor executive function in people with post-COVID conditions

The Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown Measures and COVID-19 Infection on Cognitive Functions: A Review in Healthy and Neurological Populations

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