COVID-19 vaccine and immune response

Abstract

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2; βCoV), the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), causes severe lower respiratory tract infections and acute respiratory failure syndrome (ARDS). Deaths due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic for more than a year are still seen worldwide. Therefore, vaccine trials have gained importance. The discovery of the genome and protein structure of SARS-CoV-2 in a short time allowed the development of nucleic acid-based vaccines (mRNA and DNA vaccines), vector vaccines, inactivated virus vaccines, protein-based vaccines, virus-like particle vaccines, and live attenuated virus vaccines. Many companies, universities, and institutes around the world continue to develop effective vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. In this review, the structural features, classification, genome, and intracellular entry of SARS-CoV-2 coronaviruses, stimulation of the immune system and immunity, COVID-19 vaccine types, and the latest status of clinical trials of these vaccines have been reviewed.

Essential elements as critical players against SARS-CoV-2 activity

“…The adaptative response consists of antibodies (IgA, IgM, and IgG) [4,12,14]. Another important component during the fight against viral infection is the cytokines, which act in the establishment of intercellular communication [1,[15][16][17].…”

“…4 Nutritional importance of trace elements in available treatment for SARS-CoV-2 infection Treatments for SARS-CoV-2 infection are now widely available [15,17,54]. For example, a variety of vaccines produced by different technologies have been developed and are being applied to prevent severe cases of COVID-19 [17,54].…”

“…4 Nutritional importance of trace elements in available treatment for SARS-CoV-2 infection Treatments for SARS-CoV-2 infection are now widely available [15,17,54]. For example, a variety of vaccines produced by different technologies have been developed and are being applied to prevent severe cases of COVID-19 [17,54]. In the case of new variants, which may decrease the protective efficacy of the vaccines and lead to severe symptoms of the disease, some antiviral drugs, such as molnupiravir (Merck ®) and paxlovid (Pfizer®), have been approved by FDA (Food and Drug Administration) to be used in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection [55,56].…”

Vol 12 NO. 2 (2022)

“…The adaptative response consists of antibodies (IgA, IgM, and IgG) [4,12,14]. Another important component during the fight against viral infection is the cytokines, which act in the establishment of intercellular communication [1,[15][16][17].…”

“…Treatments for SARS-CoV-2 infection are now widely available [15,17,54]. For example, a variety of vaccines produced by different technologies have been developed and are being applied to prevent severe cases of COVID-19 [17,54].…”