“…A number of studies find that criminal behavior is inversely related to the perceived risk of formal sanctions (Erikson, Gibbs, & Jensen, 1977;Grasmick & Milligan, 1976;Jensen, Gibbs, & Erikson, 1978), and it has also been found that the perceived probability that negative consequences will result from crime increases with age (Piliavin, Thornton, Gartner, & Matsueda, 1986).…”