Critical mineral resources of the United States—An introduction

Abstract

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The Eco-Costs of Material Scarcity, a Resource Indicator for LCA, Derived from a Statistical Analysis on Excessive Price Peaks

“…It is one of the main drivers behind the new "circular business models" for companies, and the "circular economy" at the level of countries. Thus, availability is high on the agenda in the United States of America (USA), as well as in the European Union (EU), leading to comprehensive studies and datasets of the British Geological Survey [1], the United States Geological Survey (USGS) [2], and the European Commission [3]. The main risk is a sudden disruption of the supply chain because of, for example, (geo)political unrest, causing an unexpected major price jump.…”

“…There is, however, a growing number of publications that tried developing alternative indicator systems for scarcity, based on current, short-term observations. Two new short-term approaches can be distinguished: (1) developments outside of LCA that try to characterize the issue of short-term availability by applying a supply risk indicator [1][2][3], as analyzed in Reference [32], and (2) developments that try to broaden the classic environmental LCA approach to LCSA (life-cycle sustainability assessment), adding aspects of S-LCA (social life-cycle assessment) [33][34][35]. Sections 1.2 and 1.3 of this paper deal with these two approaches.…”

Recycling of mixed cathode lithium‐ion batteries for electric vehicles: Current status and future outlook

“…LIB recycling is also critical toward preserving precious resources. The Cobalt Institute estimates that approximately 50% of cobalt produced worldwide is currently used in secondary batteries, with the vast majority in LIBs and a minor amount in Ni‐MH batteries . Moreover, cobalt is an important component in integrated circuits, semiconductors, magnetic recording devices (eg, hard disks), and various high‐strength alloys for applications ranging from space vehicles to prosthetic and dental applications.…”

“…It has also generated significant research interest as a catalyst in a wide range of applications . However, cobalt is considered a critical resource as approximately 60% of the worldwide mine production in 2018 originated from the Dominican Republic of Congo, where the geopolitical instability and unethical labor practices are well documented …”

Introduction: resource challenges and constructions of scarcity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

“…On a most basic level, a (mineral) resource can be defined as a 'mineral concentration of sufficient size and grade and in such a form and amount that economic extraction of a commodity from the concentration is currently or potentially feasible'. 27 While there is a strong tendencyunderlying most historical and contemporary debatesto identify resources with tangible, static things that exist in a given quantity, the economist Erich W. Zimmermann had already insisted in 1933 on a functional understanding of resources. According to him, the term resource refers to a function a thing may perform, namely attaining a given end such as satisfying a want.…”