Cryptosporidiosis: From Prevention to Treatment, a Narrative Review

Abstract

Cryptosporidiosis is a water- and food-borne zoonotic disease caused by the protozoon parasite of the genus Cryptosporidium. C. hominis and C. parvum are the main two species causing infections in humans and animals. The disease can be transmitted by the fecal–oral route as well as the respiratory route. The infective stage (sporulated oocysts) is resistant to different disinfectants including chlorine. Currently, no effective therapeutic drugs or vaccines are available to treat and control Cryptosporidium infection. To prevent cryptosporidiosis in humans and animals, we need to understand better how the disease is spread and transmitted, and how to interrupt its transmission cycle. This review focuses on understanding cryptosporidiosis, including its infective stage, pathogenesis, life cycle, genomics, epidemiology, previous outbreaks, source of the infection, transmission dynamics, host spectrum, risk factors and high-risk groups, the disease in animals and humans, diagnosis, treatment and control, and the prospect of an effective anti-Cryptosporidium vaccine. It also focuses on the role of the One Health approach in managing cryptosporidiosis at the animal–human–environmental interface. The summarized data in this review will help to tackle future Cryptosporidium infections in humans and animals and reduce the disease occurrence.

Ophthalmic implications of biological threat agents according to the chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and explosives framework

“…In contrast, C. parvum infection typically presents with less severe diarrhea along with abdominal pain, nausea, flatulence, anorexia, and fatigue. If inhaled, one may also demonstrate a productive cough ( 117 ).…”

Evaluation of Molecular-based Methods for the Detection and Quantification ofCryptosporidiumspp. in Wastewater

“…are intracellular and extracytoplasmic, undergoing a monoxenous life cycle where they complete their entire life cycle, both sexual and asexual stages, within a single host (Ghazy et al, 2015). They are distinguished by other several features including their small spherical size (diameter typically around 4 – 6 μm), minimal mitochondrial genome (∼9.2 Mbp), the ability to initiate self-infection in both zoonotic and anthroponotic potentials, their high resistance to disinfectants (up to 15,300 mg-min/L), and the ability to retain infectivity potential for up to several months outside of their hosts (CDC, 2021; Ghazy et al, 2015; Helmy & Hafez, 2022; Khan et al, 2018; King & Monis, 2007; Shields et al, 2008). To date, around 44 Cryptosporidium species have been identified, some of which are host-specific while others are ubiquitous in terms of host infectivity (Ryan et al, 2021).…”

“…It has been successfully applied as a reliable and non-invasive epidemiological tool for various pathogens including SARS-CoV-2, influenza, and RSV (Hughes et al, 2022; Layton et al, 2022; Wolfe et al, 2022). Cryptosporidiosis is another potential candidate for successful wastewater surveillance as symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals can excrete up to 10 10 Cryptosporidium oocysts per bowl movement into wastewater, leading to wastewater concentrations as high as 60,000 oocysts per L being reported (Hamilton et al, 2018; Helmy & Hafez, 2022; Zahedi et al, 2021). Additionally, Cryptosporidium oocysts neither replicate nor decay rapidly in wastewater, leading to a reliable signal in the wastewater (Chalmers & Davies, 2010; B.…”

Use of nanoparticles, a modern means of drug delivery, against cryptosporidiosis

“…It is effective in mild infections but does not give good results in moderate and heavy infections [33 , 34] . Paromomycin belongs to the group aminoglycosides, and it is found effective in children and adults to treat different levels of infection [35– 37] . Paromomycin decreases the protozoa and oocysts shedding in stools and treats diarrhea.…”