Culture and self: An empirical assessment of Markus and Kitayama’s theory of independent and interdependent self‐construals

Abstract

In this paper, I critically evaluate the logic underlying Markus and Kitayama's (1991) theory of independent and interdependent self-construals, and examine the evidence that directly tests its major assumptions. On the basis of my review of the studies they cite, and literature from three other sources, I conclude that the evidence severely challenges the validity of their theoretical framework for explaining observed national differences in psychological phenomena. I offer some ideas about alternative methodologies for research in this important area of psychology that may aid in developing and testing theories of culture and self in the future.In the U.S., ''the squeaky wheel gets the grease''; in Japan, ''the nail that sticks up gets pounded down''. Markus and Kitayama (1991) contend that anecdotes like these symbolize meaningful and important cultural differences between the U.S. and Japan, and North American/European and almost all other cultures. These differences are the basis for their theory of independent and interdependent self-construals, which is arguably one of the most influential works in the past decade in culture and psychology. Its import and implications are far-reaching, its popularity and usage widespread.Like all theories, we need to objectively evaluate it in terms of its assumptions and empirical support. Despite its popularity, to my knowledge no work to date has explicated its assumptions, nor objectively reviewed the available evidence in support of them. This paper does so. First, I review the theory, highlight major aspects of it, and describe its basic logic. Second, I identify its major assumptions, and evaluate those assumptions in relation to the evidence that has been suggested as supportive of their theory. My evaluation suggests that no study supports their contentions, because none tests the basic logic underlying their theory. Third, I review three other types of studies that directly test the assumptions in their theory. This evidence also suggests that there is little, if any, empirical support for them. Finally, I discuss the implications of this evidence for their theory, and for future work in this area. Independent and interdependent selves, and their impact on cross-cultural psychologyA brief review of the theory, and its basic logic Markus and Kitayama's (1991) well-known theory is based on the premise that

Differed Self within Collectivist Culture: Introducing an Alternative Self-Construal Theory

“…Even though this new framework seems to provide a better explanation for the cultural diversity, there still exists the problem of dichotomy. Matsumoto (1999) claimed that Markus and Kitayama's (1991a) self-construal theory has only shown the relationship between independent variable (i.e., USA and Japan) and dependent variable (i.e. independent self and interdependent self).…”

Beyond the ‘east–west’ dichotomy: Global variation in cultural models of selfhood.

“…However, the need for a comprehensive test of this claim has long been noted (Matsumoto, 1999), and the lack of a higher-order factor of independence versus interdependence at the cultural level in Study 2a already made such a simple pattern seem unlikely. Hence, we tested for "West-versus-the-rest" differences on each dimension, but we also explored in an openended fashion whether particular forms of independence or interdependence would be especially characteristic of samples from each world region.…”

“…Park & Levine, 1999;Singelis & Brown, 1995). However, this approach reinforces stereotypes by assuming that a nation is collectivistic or individualistic when in fact national samples may not vary as predicted (Matsumoto, 1999;Oyserman et al, 2002;Takano & Osaka, 1999). Since measures of I-C and self-construals often share similar items, few studies have attempted to investigate their relationship empirically.…”

“…This narrow focus may have restricted theorizing and thus limited the explanatory potential of selfconstruals. Hence, a systematic test of Markus and Kitayama's (1991) claims across a suitably diverse range of cultural contexts is long overdue (see Matsumoto, 1999).Concurrently, the theoretical contrast between "independence" and "interdependence" echoes a wider tendency in Western popular and scientific thought to view individuality and sociality as fundamentally opposed to each other-although writers from many disciplines have emphasized that individuality and sociality are indispensable and mutually reinforcing aspects of human functioning in any cultural system (Guisinger & Blatt, 1994;Kağıtçıbaşı, 2005;Marková, 1997;Matsumoto, 1999;Spiro, 1993;Taylor, 1991;Vignoles, Chryssochoou, & Breakwell, 2004). Reflecting this tendency, researchers have focused on testing how much individuals in "Western" versus "non-Western" cultures are independent versus interdependent, rather than asking in what ways they are independent and interdependent.…”

Self‐esteem, perception of relationships, and emotional distress: A cross‐cultural study

“…The unifying theoretical framework for cross-cultural research that has been the most influential in the field of psychology is Markus and Kitayama's (1991) theory of self-construals (Hermans & Kempen, 1998; for a recent critique see Matsumoto, 1999). A basic premise of their theory is that individuals vary widely in their construal of the relations between self and others.…”