Cumulative exposure characteristics of vegetable farmers exposed to Chlorpyrifos in Central Java – Indonesia; a cross-sectional study

Abstract

Background Agriculture is a major economic sector in Indonesia. Chemical pesticides are widely being used in agriculture for controlling pest. There is a growing concern that pesticide exposure, particularly chlorpyrifos (CPF) exposure, combined with other occupational characteristics that determine the level of exposure, can lead to further health impacts for farmers. Our objective was to evaluate the cumulative exposure characteristics among farmers exposed to CPF by using a validated algorithm. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional study of 152 vegetable farmers aged 18–65 who actively used CPF for at least 1 year in Central Java, Indonesia. Subject characteristics were obtained using a structured interviewer-administered questionnaire, addressed for sociodemographic and work-related characteristics. The cumulative exposure level (CEL) was estimated as a function of the intensity level of pesticide exposure (IL), lifetime years of pesticide use and the number of days spraying per year. CEL was subsequently classified into two groups, high and low exposure groups. The difference in characteristics of the study population was measured using Chi-square, independent-t or Mann-Whitney test. Association between CEL and its characteristics variables were performed by multiple linear regression. Results Seventy-one subjects (46.7%) were classified as the high exposure group. The use of multiple pesticide mixtures was common among our study population, with 94% of them using 2 or more pesticides. 73% reported direct contact with concentrated pesticides product, and over 80% reported being splashed or spilt during preparation or spraying activity. However, we found that the proportion of proper personal protective equipment (PPE) use in our subjects was low. Higher volume of mixture applied (p < 0.001) and broader acres of land (p = 0.001) were associated with higher cumulative exposure level, while using long-sleeved clothes and long pants (p < 0.05) during pesticide spraying were associated with lower cumulative exposure after adjusted for age and gender. Conclusions These findings indicate an inadequate knowledge of using pesticides properly. Thus, we recommend comprehensive training on pesticide usage and encourage proper PPE to reduce the exposure level.

Assessing the suitability of self-healing rubber glove for safe handling of pesticides

“…This repeated usage could lead to (micro)cracking or tears that would compromise the functionality of the glove and shorten its lifespan. A recent study conducted by Liem et al 11 on agricultural worker's exposure to pesticides in Central Java, Indonesia, found cases of workers who use chemical-resistant gloves often continue using the same pair of gloves even they are damaged. Furthermore, it was also found that workers from other industries such as in the cleaning sector and waste disposal continue to use damaged gloves as they are often not replaced in the event of minor tears 12 – 16 .…”

The Role of CYP2B6*6 Gene Polymorphisms in 3,5,6-Trichloro-2-pyridinol Levels as a Biomarker of Chlorpyrifos Toxicity Among Indonesian Farmers

“…The farmers in this study seemed to have had a long history of pesticide use, as they had spent most of their lives in the profession of farming and their agricultural practices had been applied over many years. This finding explains why the high CEL group in our study was characterized by a low frequency of PPE utilization and poor work practices [ 17 ], and had higher TCPy levels. Urinary TCPy levels were significantly lower in smokers than in non-smokers; a similar pattern was found in previous research [ 36 , 37 ].…”

“…Farmers, particularly those in the small-scale sector, with limited knowledge of proper pesticide handling practices may not be aware that they are susceptible to the health impacts of CPF exposure [ 17 ]. Deleterious effects of pesticides are not determined solely by genetic susceptibility; therefore, exposure control through comprehensive preventive measures (i.e., providing proper knowledge of the potential health impacts of pesticide exposure and training on pesticide handling and utilization of proper PPE) must be considered.…”

“…For example, the estimated CEL of a participant with a daily IL of 20/day for an average of 100 application day/y (frequency) over 20 years (duration) would be 40 000. The median value was used to classify participants into high-exposure and low-exposure groups, as described previously [ 17 ].…”

Health and agrochemical use experiences of agricultural workers with high serum cholinesterase levels in Northeastern Thailand

“…32,33 The workers might have chosen PPE out of discomfort associated with hot and humid weather caused by tropical conditions. 34 Interestingly, several studies have documented farm workers' improper use of PPE, 32,[34][35][36][37][38] but other unsafe behaviors, such as reusing, disposing of, washing, and storing pesticide containers, have only been observed in developing countries. 32,35,38 As mentioned earlier, knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) interventions have been widely recognized as effective interventions to improve safe pesticide use for decades.…”