Current and Forward‐Looking Approaches to Technological and Nutritional Improvements of Gluten‐Free Bread with Legume Flours: A Critical Review

Abstract

The gluten-free market currently offers a range of products which can be safely consumed by patients affected by celiac disease. Nevertheless, challenges for optimal formulation remain on the way in terms of appreciable texture, flavor, and adequate nutritional characteristics. Within that framework, legumes have recently attracted attention among scientists as structure-and texture-forming agents, as source of nutrients and bioactive compounds, and as a low-glycemic-index ingredient. This work aims at providing an updated and comprehensive overview of the advantages and disadvantages in the use of legumes in gluten-free breadmaking. It also shows how legumes can contribute to tackling the main technological, nutritional, and organoleptic challenges. From this critical analysis, it emerged that viscoelastic properties of gluten-free bread batter can be enhanced by the use of carob germ, chickpea, lupin, and soybean. Gluten-free bread organoleptic acceptability can be improved by incorporating leguminous flours, such as carob, chickpea, lupin, and soybean. Moreover, a better nutritional quality of gluten-free bread can be obtained by the addition of chickpea and soybean. Gaps and needs in the use of legumes in gluten-free breadmaking emerged and were gathered together to have a sound basis for future studies. The technological and nutritional potential of sourdough should be more extensively exploited. Moreover, in vitro and in vivo studies should be prompted to understand the health benefits of bread formulated with legumes. A holistic approach, interfacing food science, nutrition, and health might help to have, on the market, products with improved sensory properties and nutritional profile.

Strategies to Extend Bread and GF Bread Shelf-Life: From Sourdough to Antimicrobial Active Packaging and Nanotechnology

“…As far as gluten-free (GF) bread is concerned, staling represents one of the major issues, as it is mainly based on starch [10]. Moreover, gluten-free bread often contains a greater density of fat than its gluten-containing counterparts [11], hence it likely undergoes lipid oxidation.…”

“…GF bread is mandatory formulated with GF flours, and the lack of gluten implies at technological level some differences from standard breadmaking [10]. When GF ingredients are mixed, the suspension of air resulting from the mixing process and the carbon dioxide obtained from yeast fermentation cannot be entrapped in the gluten network which does form in standard breadmaking [10].…”

“…When GF ingredients are mixed, the suspension of air resulting from the mixing process and the carbon dioxide obtained from yeast fermentation cannot be entrapped in the gluten network which does form in standard breadmaking [10]. The result is hence the formation of irregular and unstable cells, leading to lack of cell structure, a reduced volume and a dry, crumbly and grainy texture.…”

“…Upon formation of a complex emulsion-foam system and of a large number of minute air bubbles, surface-active ingredients (e.g., egg whites, lipoproteins) are also generally added, as they allow the entrapment of bubbles by the formation of a protective film around the gas bubbles, and also prevent them from coalescing. Gums, stabilizers, and pre-gelatinized starches are also used, so that gas occlusion and stabilization can occur [10,19]. However, the very high level of water, the addition of fat ingredients and/or GF starches determine in GF bread a more rapid firming behaviour and a higher susceptibility to microbial spoilage [18,20,21].…”

“…Staling represents one of the major issues in GF bread, as this latter is often mainly based on starchy ingredients [10]. Interestingly, the ingredients themselves determine a more rapid or slow staling process.…”