Current concepts and applications in the musculoskeletal and peripheral nervous systems

Tissue‐engineered vascularized bone grafts: Basic science and clinical relevance to trauma and reconstructive microsurgery

“…For bone tissues, the scaffold provides a suitable environment for osteogenic cells to migrate, proliferate, differentiate, and promote new bone formation. 1,3 It addition, it should also provide mechanical competence during bone regeneration. A scaffold is an artificial construct using polymers.…”

“…Of the new polymers developed, polyactic acid, polyglycolic acid, and polypropyl fumarate have exhibited novel biomechanical properties and in particular, the ability to promote growth of tissue. 1 As our awareness of the extracellular matrix constituents increases, more tissue-specific scaffolds can be developed or scaffolds that incorporate cellular signals that enhance cell growth and differentiation can be devised.…”

“…Tissue engineering involves the use of cells (either adult, mesenchymal, or embryonic stem cells), biological or artificial scaffolds, and biofactors that promote cell growth and differentiation along complex pathways to repair the tissue. [1][2][3]12 In an attempt to harness the innate regenerative capacity of bone for controlled repair, research has focused on: (1) The isolation of cells with synthetic potential; and (2) The identification of matrices to act as scaffolds that can be seeded with cells or coupled with appropriate biofactors to trigger the healing response in vivo. The use of adult stem cell has gained focus recently.…”

“…Small amounts of cancellous allografts are usually remodeled completely, while large allografts become incorporated by limited, surface intramembranous bone formation suggesting osteoconduction. [1][2][3] As bone loss remains a major health problem, the development of effective bone regeneration therapies a primary priority. The advances in the fields of biotechnology and tissue engineering offer new possibilities in the repair or regeneration of bony tissue loss in disease or injury.…”

“…Recently, research focusing on constructing artificial tissues by combining modulated cells with extracellular matrix-hybridized synthetic polymers has produced exciting results with biologically functioning artificial tissues. [1][2][3] Tissue engineering is based on the understanding of tissue formation and regeneration. The goal is to reconstruct bony tissue in an anatomically functional three-dimensional morphology (e.g., grow functional tissues), rather build new spare parts.…”