Deep brain stimulation between 1947 and 1987: the untold story

Abstract

<jats:p>Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is the most rapidly expanding field in neurosurgery. Movement disorders are well-established indications for DBS, and a number of other neurological and psychiatric indications are currently being investigated.</jats:p> <jats:p>Numerous contemporary opinions, reviews, and viewpoints on DBS fail to provide a comprehensive account of how this method came into being. Misconceptions in the narrative history of DBS conveyed by the wealth of literature published over the last 2 decades can be summarized as follows: Deep brain stimulation was invented in 1987. The utility of high-frequency stimulation was also discovered in 1987. Lesional surgery preceded DBS. Deep brain stimulation was first used in the treatment of movement disorders and was subsequently used in the treatment of psychiatric and behavioral disorders. Reports of nonmotor effects of subthalamic nucleus DBS prompted its use in psychiatric illness. Early surgical interventions for psychiatric illness failed to adopt a multidisciplinary approach; neurosurgeons often worked “in isolation” from other medical specialists. The involvement of neuro-ethicists and multidisciplinary teams are novel standards introduced in the modern practice of DBS for mental illness that are essential in avoiding the unethical behavior of bygone eras.</jats:p> <jats:p>In this paper, the authors examined each of these messages in the light of literature published since 1947 and formed the following conclusions. Chronic stimulation of subcortical structures was first used in the early 1950s, very soon after the introduction of human stereotaxy. Studies and debate on the stimulation frequency most likely to achieve desirable results and avoid side effects date back to the early days of DBS; several authors advocated the use of “high” frequency, although the exact frequency was not always specified. Ablative surgery and electrical stimulation developed in parallel, practically since the introduction of human stereotactic surgery. The first applications of both ablative surgery and chronic subcortical stimulation were in psychiatry, not in movement disorders. The renaissance of DBS in surgical treatment of psychiatric illness in 1999 had little to do with nonmotor effects of subthalamic nucleus DBS but involved high-frequency stimulation of the very same brain targets previously used in ablative surgery. Pioneers in functional neurosurgery mostly worked in multidisciplinary groups, including when treating psychiatric illness; those “acting in isolation” were not neurosurgeons. Ethical concerns have indeed been addressed in the past, by neurosurgeons and others. Some of the questionable behavior in surgery for psychiatric illness, including the bygone era of DBS, was at the hands of nonneurosurgeons. These practices have been deemed as “dubious and precarious by yesterday's standards.”</jats:p>

Dr. Robert G. Heath: a controversial figure in the history of deep brain stimulation

“…Heath's research methods combined a biological and psychoanalytical approach to studying psychiatric disorders and placed an emphasis on the emotional pathways involved. 11 Upon returning from the war, Heath continued his studies at Columbia's College of Physicians and Surgeons with a fellowship at the Psychoanalytical Clinic under Dr. Sandor Rado. 8,9,15,32 Dr. Rado's stance on psychoanalysis influenced Heath to incorporate a multidisciplinary approach in his later research.…”

“…11,17,24 His initial work on the Columbia-Greystone Project and the training he received from Dr. Rado greatly impacted his research at Tulane and was the basis for his decision to selectively ablate Brodmann areas 9 and 10.…”

Anesthetic Considerations for Deep Brain Stimulation

“…In 1947, the use of a stereotactic device in humans was first described as "stereoencephalotomy" [11]. In 1952, local low-frequency stimulation was implemented in psychiatric interventions, leading to a successful use of high-frequency stimulation in patients with intractable tremor in 1987 [11,12]. In 1997, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of DBS in patients with essential tremor (ET) [2].…”

Advances in Neuromodulation: The Orbitofrontal-Striatal Model Of, and Deep Brain Stimulation In, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

“…These interventions included malarial pyrotherapy described by Epstein in 1936 52 , hypoglycemic coma described by Sakel in 1937 53 , electroconvulsive therapy, described by Bini in 1938 54 , as well as neurosurgery. Historically (and currently) the use of neurosurgery has only been used only for intractable psychiatric illnesses 55 .…”