“…Building stable, dependable classifiers with competitive performance requires efficient feature extraction ( Xie et al 2021 ). To thoroughly study the typical and particular patterns of bARTT proteins, we extracted 15 widely used predefined features, including three major groups: a sequence-based features group [AAC ( Anfinsen 1972 ), DPC ( Zou et al 2013 ), and TPC ( Chou 2000 , Hosen et al 2022 )], a physicochemical property-based features group [CTD ( Cao et al 2013 ), QSO ( Chou 2000 ), PAAC ( Chou 2001 ), APAAC ( Chou 2001 ), MBauto ( Lin and Pan 2001 ), Moranauto ( Horne 1988 ), and Gearyauto ( Sokal and Thomson 2006 )] and an evolutionary information-based features group [PSSM-composition ( Zou et al 2013 ), S-FPSSM ( Zahiri et al 2013 ), DPC-PSSM ( Liu et al 2010 ), Pse-PSSM ( Chou and Shen 2007 ), and RPSSM ( Chen et al 2023 )]. Sequence-based features describe the frequencies or compositions of sequence elements, whereas physicochemical property-based features represent the statistical information about the physicochemical properties of the amino acids in protein sequences.…”