Degradation Mechanism of Autophagy-Related Proteins and Research Progress

Abstract

In all eukaryotes, autophagy is the main pathway for nutrient recycling, which encapsulates parts of the cytoplasm and organelles in double-membrane vesicles, and then fuses with lysosomes/vacuoles to degrade them. Autophagy is a highly dynamic and relatively complex process influenced by multiple factors. Under normal growth conditions, it is maintained at basal levels. However, when plants are subjected to biotic and abiotic stresses, such as pathogens, drought, waterlogging, nutrient deficiencies, etc., autophagy is activated to help cells to survive under stress conditions. At present, the regulation of autophagy is mainly reflected in hormones, second messengers, post-transcriptional regulation, and protein post-translational modification. In recent years, the degradation mechanism of autophagy-related proteins has attracted much attention. In this review, we have summarized how autophagy-related proteins are degraded in yeast, animals, and plants, which will help us to have a more comprehensive and systematic understanding of the regulation mechanisms of autophagy. Moreover, research progress on the degradation of autophagy-related proteins in plants has been discussed.

Glutathione Depletion and Stalwart Anticancer Activity of Metallotherapeutics Inducing Programmed Cell Death: Opening a New Window for Cancer Therapy

“…On the other hand, AMPK phosphorylates the ULK1 Ser 317 as well as ULK1 Ser 777 to stimulate the creation of the ULK1 complex . After the completion of acetylation of ULK1 Ser757 by O-GlcNAc, OGT co-mediates the phosphorylation of ATG14 Ser29 with GABARAPs. , Upon activation of the ULK1 complex, PIKfyve Ser1548 also undergoes phosphorylation to trigger the transformation of PI to PI(5)P. After the transformation, PI(5)P binds with the WIPI2 to detach the isolation membrane from the ER membrane. , Then, the PI3KC3 complex combines with the ATG5-ATG12 complex as well as the ATG8/LC3 system with the help of WIPI2 in order to carry out the extension of the isolation membrane. Therefore, ubiquitination of the ATG8/LC3 system and ATG5-ATG12 complex is promoted via the formation of a positive feedback loop until the isolation membrane is closed, which leads to the formation of an autophagosome. , As soon as the autophagosomes are formed, they exploit the fusion proteins of lysosomes at the time of successive removal of ATGs on the outer membrane of autophagosomes.…”

“… 168 , 169 Upon activation of the ULK1 complex, PIKfyve Ser1548 also undergoes phosphorylation to trigger the transformation of PI to PI(5)P. After the transformation, PI(5)P binds with the WIPI2 to detach the isolation membrane from the ER membrane. 170 , 171 Then, the PI3KC3 complex combines with the ATG5-ATG12 complex as well as the ATG8/LC3 system with the help of WIPI2 in order to carry out the extension of the isolation membrane. Therefore, ubiquitination of the ATG8/LC3 system and ATG5-ATG12 complex is promoted via the formation of a positive feedback loop until the isolation membrane is closed, which leads to the formation of an autophagosome.…”

Selected Flavonols Targeting Cell Death Pathways in Cancer Therapy: The Latest Achievements in Research on Apoptosis, Autophagy, Necroptosis, Pyroptosis, Ferroptosis, and Cuproptosis

“…Its main role is to maintain homeostasis by eliminating dysfunctional organelles and protein aggregates; under certain conditions, it can mediate cell death. Three types of autophagy have been identified, including macroautophagy, microautophagy, and chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) [ 90 ].…”

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“…There is a basal level of autophagy activity the cells in the human body (158)(159)(160)(161). This basal activity is involved in the recycling of proteins and organelles destined for degradation and highlights the antiaging role of autophagy (162,163).…”