Depression as a model for behavioral analysis

Behavioral formulations of depression.

“…Given that reinforcement is delivered, frequency is but one of four governing parameters. In a meticulous behavioral analysis of depression, Moss and Boren (1972) list four interrelated parameters of reinforcement: frequency, duration, magnitude, and the amount of behavior required to obtain the reinforcer (the response cost). They give clinical examples corresponding to each of the parameters.…”

“…They pointed out that this result is consistent with Costello's formulation. Moss and Boren (1972) described three conditions that can lead to insufficient positive reinforcement, the third being the "interruption of a chain of behavior leading to positive reinforcement" (p. 585). They denned a chain of behavior as a complex "sequence of behaviors, often topographically unrelated, developed and maintained by positive reinforcement" (p. 585).…”

“…The frequency of behavior can be reduced by aversive stimuli, particularly the conditioned aversive stimuli that precede the aversive event (Ferster, 1966). Moss and Boren (1972) identified two typical ways in which aversive control is associated with depressive behavior: (a) directly, where the aversive event is a reduction of positive reinforcement and (b) indirectly, where punishment, avoidance, or escape may suppress behaviors that would have been followed by positive reinforcement. They, too, stress that clinical cases of depression (as against animal analogues) "more often involve secondary .…”

“…Until Lazarus defines the crucial differences between anxiety and depression, further speculation would seem to be unprofitable. Moss and Boren (1972) highlighted one problem with the aversive control of behavior: "maintaining a continuing threat of presentation of the aversive stimulus in a situation denying escape" (p. 586). The work of Selig-man and his co-workers appears to provide a solutionto this difficulty.…”

“…However, the major visible precipitating events that give rise to human depression are not usually primary aversive stimuli but, typically, a sudden reduction of reinforcement or the operation of conditioned aversive stimuli. Since the reduction of positive reinforcement is considered to be an aversive event (Ferster, 1966;Moss & Boren, 1972), learned helplessness could possibly be induced by suitable manipulation of positive reinforcement. If the nine theorists mentioned in the first section of this reveiw are correct, one would expect depression to result.…”